“I know, you know”: epistemic egocentrism in children and adults

Royzman, Edward B.; Cassidy, Kimberly Wright; Baron, Jonathan

doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.38

Cited by 246Child and Animal Learning DevelopmentDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsEpistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics

“I know, you know”: epistemic egocentrism in children and adults

Royzman, Edward B., Cassidy, Kimberly Wright, Baron, Jonathan·2003·Review of General Psychology

DOI 10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.38

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Abstract

This article reviews the evidence and theory pertaining to a form of perspective-taking failure—a difficulty in setting aside the privileged information that one knows to be unavailable to another party. The authors argue that this bias (epistemic egocentrism, or EE) is a general feature of human cognition and has been tapped by 2 independent and largely uncommunicating research traditions: the theory-of-mind tradition in developmental psychology and, with more sensitive probes, the “heuristics and biases” tradition in the psychology of human judgment. This article sets the stage for facilitating communication between these traditions as well as for the recognition of EE's breadth and potential interdisciplinary significance: The authors propose a life-span account and a tentative taxonomy of EE; and they highlight the interdisciplinary significance of EE by discussing its implications for normative ethics.

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Failure of self-other distinction results in a blending of these states, thereby inducing an egocentricity bias or an altercentric bias.
“Failure of selfother distinction results in a blending of these states, thereby inducing an egocentricity bias, the tendency to project one's own emotional or mental state on someone else [41,42], or an altercentric bias, the influence of others' states on judgments about oneself [43].”
From On the interaction of social affect and cognition: empathy, compassion and theory of mind (2018) · cites this paper as [42]
Self-other distinction is critical for both empathy and Theory of Mind.
“A process that is critical for both, empathy and ToM, is self-other distinction, which is implemented in different temporoparietal brain regions.”
From On the interaction of social affect and cognition: empathy, compassion and theory of mind (2018) · cites this paper as [42]
Adults are prone to egocentric judgments in the cognitive domain and when attributing visceral and affective states.
“Adults have been shown to be prone to egocentric judgments both in the cognitive domain (Royzman et al., 2003;Pronin, 2008) as well as when attributing visceral (Van Boven and Loewenstein, 2003;O'Brien and Ellsworth, 2012) and affective states (Silani et al., 2013).”
From Age-related differences in function and structure of rSMG and reduced functional connectivity with DLPFC explains heightened emotional egocentricity bias in childhood (2015) · cites this paper as Royzman et al., 2003

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The functional architecture of human empathy
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Women and Suicidal Behavior
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Altercentric interference in level 1 visual perspective taking reflects the ascription of mental states, not submentalizing.
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Confirmation Bias and the Persistence of Misinformation on Climate Change
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When Focusing on Differences Leads to Similar Perspectives
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The curious tale of Julie and Mark: Unraveling the moral dumbfounding effect
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Direct and indirect measures of Level‐2 perspective‐taking in children and adults
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The Importance of Context in Moral Judgments
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Chapter 1 The Introspection Illusion
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Perspective taking modulates event-related potentials to perceived pain
Li, W., & Han, S. (2009) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2009.12.021 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
No luck for moral luck
Kneer, M., & Machery, É. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.09.003 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Unsentimental ethics: Towards a content-specific account of the moral–conventional distinction
Royzman, E. B., Leeman, R. F., & Baron, J. A. (2009) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.04.004 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
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Self-centered social exchange: Differential use of costs versus benefits in prosocial reciprocity.
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CAD or MAD? Anger (not disgust) as the predominant response to pathogen-free violations of the divinity code.
Royzman, E. B., Atanasov, P., Landy, J., Parks, A., & Gepty, A. A. (2014) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0036829 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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A Blueprint for Social Cognitive Development
Olson, K. R., & Dweck, C. S. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00074.x · Cited by 108 · see citing works
We Saw It All Along
Bernstein, D. M., Atance, C. M., Loftus, G. R., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00663.x · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Assessing metacognition in schizophrenia with the Metacognition Assessment Scale: Associations with the Social Cognition and Object Relations Scale
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Preschoolers' Current Desires Warp Their Choices for the Future
Atance, C. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01748.x · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Preserved Self-other Distinction During Empathy in Autism is Linked to Network Integrity of Right Supramarginal Gyrus
Hoffmann, F., Koehne, S., Steinbeis, N., Dziobek, I., & Singer, T. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2609-0 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
From Plato to Putnam: Four Ways to Think About Hate.
Royzman, E. B., McCauley, C. R., & Rozin, P. N. (2005) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10930-001 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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Hindsight Bias and Developing Theories of Mind
Bernstein, D. M., Atance, C. M., Meltzoff, A. N., & Loftus, G. R. (2007) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01071.x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Age-related differences in function and structure of rSMG and reduced functional connectivity with DLPFC explains heightened emotional egocentricity bias in childhood
Steinbeis, N., Bernhardt, B. C., & Singer, T. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu057 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Dear Abby: Should I Give Advice or Receive It?
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Ayelet Fishbach, B., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797618795472 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
When Knowledge Is a Curse
Birch, S. (2005) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00328.x · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Language complexity modulates 8- and 10-year-olds’ success at using their theory of mind abilities in a communication task
Wang, J. J., Ali, M. J., Frisson, S., & Apperly, I. A. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.006 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Solving the (Real) Other Minds Problem
Nicholas Epley, A. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00115.x · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Historical perspective taking: A standardized measure for an aspect of students' historical thinking
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Understanding Norms Without a Theory of Mind
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Testing the domain-specificity of a theory of mind deficit in brain-injured patients: Evidence for consistent performance on non-verbal, “reality-unknown” false belief and false photograph tasks
Apperly, I. A., Samson, D., Chiavarino, C., Bickerton, W.-L., & Humphreys, G. W. (2007) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.04.012 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
A ‘curse of knowledge’ in the absence of knowledge? People misattribute fluency when judging how common knowledge is among their peers
Birch, S., Brosseau-Liard, P. É., Haddock, T., & Ghrear, S. E. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.04.015 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Beliefs About Thought Probability: Evidence for Persistent Errors in Mindreading and Links to Executive Control
Lagattuta, K. H., Sayfan, L., & Harvey, C. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12154 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
What makes the dorsomedial frontal cortex active during reading the mental states of others?
Isoda, M., & Noritake, A. (2013) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2013.00232 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Measuring Beliefs in Centimeters: Private Knowledge Biases Preschoolers' and Adults' Representation of Others' Beliefs
Sommerville, J. A., Bernstein, D. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12110 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
What Can Children Tell Us About Hindsight Bias: A Fundamental Constraint on Perspective–Taking?
Birch, S., & Bernstein, D. M. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.1.98 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Does interference between self and other perspectives in theory of mind tasks reflect a common underlying process? Evidence from individual differences in theory of mind and inhibitory control
Qureshi, A., Monk, R. L., Samson, D., & Apperly, I. A. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01656-z · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Intergroup visual perspective-taking: Shared group membership impairs self-perspective inhibition but may facilitate perspective calculation
Simpson, A. J., & Todd, A. R. (2017) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.06.003 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Is Consequential Luck Morally Inconsequential? Empirical Psychology and the Reassessment of Moral Luck
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Beyond Sally's Missing Marble
Lagattuta, K. H., Kramer, H. J., Kennedy, K., Lara, K. H., Goldfarb, D., & Tashjian, S. M. (2015) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/bs.acdb.2014.11.005 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Impaired decentration in personality disorder: A series of single cases analysed with the metacognition assessment scale
Dimaggio, G., Carcione, A., Nicolò, G., Conti, L., Fiore, D., Pedone, R., Popolo, R., Procacci, M., & Semerari, A. (2009) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.619 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Emotional Egocentricity Bias Across the Life-Span
Riva, F., Triscoli, C., Lamm, C., Carnaghi, A., & Silani, G. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00074 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
How would the self be remembered? Evidence for posthumous self-verification
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New Insights into the Inter-Individual Variability in Perspective Taking
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Gender Differences in Empathy During Adolescence: Does Emotional Self-Awareness Matter?
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When differences matter: rTMS/fMRI reveals how differences in dispositional empathy translate to distinct neural underpinnings of self-other distinction in empathy
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Exploring personas as a method to foster empathy in student IT design teams
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Self-perspective inhibition deficits cannot be explained by general executive control difficulties
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Mapping Mentalising in the Brain
Frith, C., & Frith, U. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51890-5_2 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Perspectives on Perspective Taking
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The Minds We Make: A Philosophical Inquiry into Theory of Mind and Artificial Intelligence
Yıldız, T. (2025) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-024-09876-2 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
A developmental shift in processes underlying successful belief-desire reasoning
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Whatever Happened to "What Might Have Been"?
King, L. A., & Hicks, J. A. (2007) · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Why is fathers’ reflective function important?
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Taking the pulse of social cognition: Cardiac afferent activity and interoceptive accuracy modulate emotional egocentricity bias
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Multitasking during social interactions in adolescence and early adulthood
Mills, K. L., Dumontheil, I., Speekenbrink, M., & Blakemore, S. (2015) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.150117 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
How Ideology Has Hindered Sociological Insight
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How to Seem Telepathic
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Perceiving by proxy: Effect-based action control with unperceivable effects
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Theory of mind and children’s understanding of teaching and learning during early childhood
Wang, Z. (2015) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2015.1011973 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
KNOWLEDGE AND RELIABILITY
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Self-citation

Authors: Royzman, E. B., Cassidy, K. W., & Baron, J.
Affiliations: University of Pennsylvania (US)
Bryn Mawr College (US)
Corresponding author: Royzman, Edward B.
ORCID: Royzman, Edward B.
Cassidy, Kimberly Wright
Baron, Jonathan
Venue: Review of General Psychology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2003-03
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 38-65
ISSN: 1089-2680 (ISSN-L)
1939-1552
DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.7.1.38
OpenAlex: W2168188972
Cited by: 246
References: 141
Citations by year: 2026: 7 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 10
FWCI: 9.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Epistemology, Ethics, and Metaphysics
Keywords: theory of mind, heuristics and biases, privileged information, epistemic bias, lifespan development, normative ethics, children and adults

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“I know, you know”: epistemic egocentrism in children and adults

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