The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric populations: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The DSM-IV identifies a deficiency in empathy as one of the essential features of narcissistic personality disorder.

“The DSM-IV identifies a deficiency in empathy as one of the essential features of narcissistic personality disorder.”

• cites DSM-IVNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Empathy is a multidimensional construct that includes aspects of emotion communication, self-awareness and theory of mind.

“Here we view empathy as a multidimensional construct to account for the sense of sharing and understanding the subjective experience of others. Thus empathy includes aspects of emotion communication, self-awareness and theory of mind.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Shared neural representations, self-other awareness, mental flexibility and emotion regulation constitute the basic macro-components of empathy, which are mediated by specific and interacting neural systems.

“Shared neural representations, self-other awareness, mental flexibility and emotion regulation constitute the basic macro-components of empathy, which are mediated by specific and interacting neural systems.”

May combine two claims.

Voluntary facial activity produces significant levels of subjective experience of the associated emotions as well as specific and reliable autonomic measures.

“They found that such a voluntary facial activity produced significant levels of subjective experience of the associated emotions as well as specific and reliable autonomic measures.”

• cites [46]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Some components involved in empathy occur implicitly, without awareness, in a bottom-up fashion, such as emotion-sharing and motor mimicry.

“Like many emotion-related processes, some components involved in empathy occur implicitly, without awareness, in a bottom-up fashion. This is the case with the emotion-sharing and motor mimicry aspects.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sharing emotion without self-awareness corresponds to the phenomenon of emotional contagion.

“For instance, sharing emotion without self-awareness corresponds to the phenomenon of emotional contagion, which takes the form of 'total identification without discrimination between one's feelings and those of the other [11].”

• cites [11]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Other components of empathy require explicit top-down processing, such as perspective-taking, representing our own thoughts and feelings as well as those of others, and some aspects of emotion regulation.

“Other components require explicit top-down processing, such as perspective-taking, representing our own thoughts and feelings as well as those of others, and also some aspects of emotion regulation.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals with autism do not show spontaneous mimicry, but they perform voluntary mimicry well.

“Interestingly, individuals with autism, who are profoundly impaired in social and emotional abilities, do not show spontaneous mimicry, but they perform voluntary mimicry well [35].”

• Also stated in: § Autism and Autistic spectrum disorders (ASD) · plain

  “Another recent study found that individuals with autism do not show spontaneous mimicry, but they perform voluntary mimicry well [35].”

• cites [35]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Patient N.K. with left insula and putamen damage was selectively impaired in recognizing social signals of disgust from multiple modalities and was less disgusted than controls by disgust-provoking scenarios.

“Calder, Keane, Manes, Antoun and Young [52] described patient N.K., with left insula and putamen damage who was selectively impaired in recognizing social signals of disgust from multiple modalities (facial expressions, non-verbal sounds, and emotional prosody), and who was less disgusted than controls by disgust-provoking scenarios.”

• cites [52]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Patient N.M. with bilateral amygdala damage and left thalamic lesion was impaired in recognizing fear from facial expressions, body postures, and emotional sounds, and reported reduced anger and fear in everyday experience.

“Another case, N.M, who suffered from bilateral amygdala damage and left thalamic lesion was found to be impaired in recognizing fear from facial expressions and exhibited an equivalent impairment of fear recognition from body postures and emotional sounds [51]. The patient also reported reduced anger and fear in his everyday experience of emotion.”

• cites [51]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Patient S.M. with bilateral amygdala damage was impaired in both the recognition of fear from facial expressions and in the phenomenological experience of fear.

“Adolphs and colleagues [50] investigated S.M., a 30-year old patient, whose amygdala was bilaterally destructed by a metabolic disorder. Consistent with the prominent role of the amygdala in mediating certain negatively valenced emotions such as fear, S.M. was found to be impaired in both the recognition of fear from facial expressions and in the phenomenological experience of fear.”

• cites [50]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize one's own emotional behavior with that of others facilitates the smoothness of social interaction and may even foster empathy.

“This tendency to automatically mimic and synchronize one's own emotional behavior with that of others, also known as the phenomenon of emotion contagion, facilitate the smoothness of social interaction and may even foster empathy [33].”

• cites [33]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The meaning of a given object, action, or social situation may be common to several people and may activate corresponding distributed patterns of neural activation in their respective brains.

“Indeed, the meaning of a given object, action, or social situation may be common to several people and may activate corresponding distributed patterns of neural activation in their respective brains [38,39].”

• cites [38]Not checked yet

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• cites [39]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Participants who had been mimicked by the experimenter were more helpful and generous toward other people than non-mimicked participants, including toward people not directly involved in the mimicry situation.

“For instance, a study demonstrated that participants who had been mimicked by the experimenter were more helpful and generous toward other people than non-mimicked participants [34]. That study also found that these beneficial consequences of mimicry were not restricted to behavior directed toward the mimicker, but included behavior directed toward people not directly involved in the mimicry situ”

• cites [34]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Evolution has constructed layers of increasing complexity, from non-representational to representational and meta-representational mechanisms, which need to be taken into account for a full understanding of human empathy.

“Evolution has constructed layers of increasing complexity, from non-representational (e.g., emotion contagion) to representational and meta-representational mechanisms (e.g., sympathy), which need to be taken into account for a full understanding of human empathy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Advanced levels of social cognition may have arisen as an emergent property of powerful executive functioning assisted by the representational properties of language.

“Overall, this evolutionary conceptual view is compatible with the hypothesis that advanced levels of social cognition may have arisen as an emergent property of powerful executive functioning assisted by the representational properties of language [26].”

• cites [26]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The lower level of empathy processing, automatically activated by perceptual input, accounts for emotion sharing which leads to the implicit recognition that others are like us.

“The lower level, which is automatically activated (unless inhibited) by perceptual input, accounts for emotion sharing which leads to the implicit recognition that others are like us.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is broad agreement among scholars on three primary aspects of empathy: an affective response to another person, a cognitive capacity to take the perspective of the other person, and some self-regulatory and monitoring mechanisms that modulate inner states.

“Yet, regardless of the particular terminology that is used, there is broad agreement among scholars on three primary aspects: 1) an affective response to another person, which often, but not always, entails sharing that person's emotional state, 2) a cognitive capacity to take the perspective of the other person, and 3) some self-regulatory and monitoring mechanisms that modulate inner states (e.g”

• cites [16]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Top-down regulation, through executive functions, modulates low levels and adds flexibility, making the individual less dependent on external cues.

“Thus, top-down regulation, through executive functions, modulates low levels and adds flexibility, making the individual less dependent on external cues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Empathy involves not only the affective experience of the other person's actual or inferred emotional state but also some minimal recognition and understanding of another's emotional state.

“As such, empathy involves not only the affective experience of the other person's actual or inferred emotional state but also some minimal recognition and understanding of another's emotional state (or most likely emotional state).”

• cites [29]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In primates, the ability to understand emotional states of others is critical for maintaining social interactions.

“In primates, the ability to understand emotional states of others is critical for maintaining social interactions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Understanding other people's emotional signals has clear adaptive advantages and is especially important in the formation and maintenance of social relationships.

“Understanding other people's emotional signals has clear adaptive advantages and is especially important in the formation and maintenance of social relationships.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Emotional expression and perception are an integral part of any social interaction.

“Emotional expression and perception are an integral part of any social interaction [31].”

• cites [31]Not checked yet

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The quote only partly states this claim.

There is evidence for a mechanism in which perception of emotion activates neural mechanisms responsible for generating similar emotion in the observer.

“There is evidence for such a mechanism in the recognition of emotion from facial expression.”

May combine two claims.

Making a facial expression generates changes in the autonomic nervous system and is associated with feeling the corresponding emotion.

“Making a facial expression generates changes in the autonomic nervous system and is associated with feeling the corresponding emotion.”

May combine two claims.

The primary somatosensory cortex showed significant activations in response to noxious tactile, but not visual, stimuli.

“In contrast, the primary somatosensory cortex showed significant activations in response to noxious tactile, but not visual, stimuli.”

• cites [56]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In Jackson, Meltzoff and Decety's fMRI study, viewing painful or neutral pictures and imagining the level of pain produced significant activation in dorsal ACC, thalamus, and anterior insula, but no activity in the somatosensory cortex.

“Significant activation in regions involved in the affective aspects of pain processing, notably the dorsal ACC, the thalamus and the anterior insula was detected, but no activity in the somatosensory cortex (see Figure 2).”

• cites [57]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A recent magnetoencephalographic study indicated that somatosensory oscillations are modulated by the perception of pain in others, and supports the idea that pain perception elicits subtle somatosensory activity.

“A recent magnetoencephalographic study indicated that somatosensory oscillations are modulated by the perception of pain in others, and supports the idea that pain perception elicits subtle somatosensory activity [62].”

• cites [62]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A similar rostro-caudal organization is observed in the insula, which is consistent with its anatomical connectivity and electrophysiological properties.

“A similar rostro-caudal organization is observed in the insula, which is consistent with its anatomical connectivity and electrophysiological properties [59].”

• cites [59]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The self-perspective yielded higher pain ratings and involved the pain matrix more extensively, including the secondary somatosensory cortex, the mid-insula, and the caudal part of the anterior cingulate cortex.

“However, the self-perspective yielded higher pain ratings and involved the pain matrix more extensively, including the secondary somatosensory cortex, the mid-insula, and the caudal part of the anterior cingulate cortex.”

• cites [58]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The experience of pain in oneself is associated with more caudal activations (within area 24), consistent with spino-thalamic nociceptive projections, whereas the perception of pain in others is represented in more rostral and dorsal regions (within area 32).

“The experience of pain in oneself is associated with more caudal activations (within area 24), consistent with spino-thalamic nociceptive projections, whereas the perception of pain in others is represented in more rostral (and dorsal) regions (within area 32).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Pain processing has a sensory-discriminative aspect and an affective-subjective aspect that are underpinned by discrete yet interacting neural networks.

May combine two claims.

A clear sense of self may have evolved to solve at least two adaptive problems: the self is the repository of social feedback one receives from others, and it allows one to model and understand the internal, subjective worlds of others, improving interaction efficacy.

“A clear sense of self may have evolved to solve at least two kinds of adaptive problems: 1) the self is the repository of the social feedback one receives from others and, 2) it allows one to model and understand the internal, subjective worlds of others, making it easier to infer intentions and causes that lay behind observed behaviors, thus improving interaction efficacy [67].”

• cites [67]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This region contains spindle cells, a class of large projection neurons found only in great apes and humans, which are thought to be involved in coordinating widely distributed neural activity involving emotion and cognition.

“This region contains spindle cells, a class of large projection neurons found only in great apes and humans, which are thought to be involved in coordinating widely distributed neural activity involving emotion and cognition [71].”

• cites [71]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Self-awareness does not rely on a specific brain region; rather, it arises from the interaction between processes distributed in the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex and the inferior parietal lobule.

“Self-awareness does not rely on a specific brain region. Rather, it arises from the interaction between processes distributed in the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex and the inferior parietal lobule.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The awareness that others exist as separate entities is a prerequisite component of empathy.

“The awareness that others exist as separate entities is a prerequisite component of empathy.”

May combine two claims.

The shared representations mechanism is necessary but not sufficient for empathic understanding.

“However, such a mechanism is necessary but not sufficient for empathic understanding.”

May combine two claims.

There is no specific cortical site for shared representations; their neural underpinnings are widely distributed, and the pattern of activation varies according to the processing domain, the particular emotion, and the stored information.

“There is no specific cortical site for shared representations: their neural underpinnings are widely distributed, and the pattern of activation (and also presumably deactivation) varies according to the processing domain, the particular emotion, and the stored information.”

May combine two claims.

The shared representations mechanism offers a foundation for intersubjectivity because it provides a functional bridge between first-person information and third-person information, allowing an automatic and non-conscious connection between the self and the other.

“This mechanism offers a foundation for intersubjectivity because it provides a functional bridge between first-person information and third-person information [38], which allows an automatic and non-conscious connection between the self and the other.”

• cites [38]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The inferior parietal cortex is a heteromodal association area that receives input from the lateral and posterior thalamus, as well as visual, auditory, somesthetic, and limbic areas, and has reciprocal connections to the prefrontal cortex and to the temporal lobes.

“The inferior parietal cortex is a heteromodal association area, which receives input from the lateral and posterior thalamus, as well as visual, auditory, somesthetic, and limbic areas. It has reciprocal connections to the prefrontal cortex and to the temporal lobes [76].”

• cites [76]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

These multiple connections confer on the inferior parietal cortex a role in the elaboration of an image of the body in space and in time, on which the sense of agency depends.

“These multiple connections confer on this region a role in the elaboration of an image of the body in space and in time [77], on which the sense of agency depends.”

• cites [77]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The right hemisphere is a key player in self-awareness and mental state attribution.

“Based on these numerous studies (and many others not reviewed here), it was argued that the right hemisphere is a key player in self-awareness and mental state attribution [75].”

• cites [75]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Such a function is crucial for empathy in order to maintain a minimal distinction between the self and the other and to keep track of the origin of the feelings.

“Such a function is crucial for empathy in order to maintain a minimal distinction between the self and the other and to keep track of the origin of the feelings.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Social cognition relies both on similarities and differences between individuals.

“Indeed, social cognition relies both on similarities and differences between individuals.”

May combine two claims.

Our default mode to reasoning about others is biased toward self-perspective and this constitutes a general feature of human cognition.

“Several social psychologists have suggested and documented through empirical work that our default mode to reasoning about others is biased toward self-perspective and that this constitutes a general feature of human cognition (e.g., [84,85]).”

• cites [84]Not checked yet

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• cites [85]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

These results provide strong empirical support for a domain-general mechanism implemented in the right TPJ, and show that this area is also engaged in lower-level bottom-up computational processes associated with the sense of agency and reorienting attention to salient stimuli.

“These results provide strong empirical support for a domain-general mechanism implemented in the right TPJ, and show that this area is also engaged in lower-level (bottom-up) computational processes associated with the sense of agency and reorienting attention to salient stimuli.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Empathy requires one to adopt more or less consciously the subjective point of view of the other in relation to oneself.

“However, in these conditions, empathy requires one to adopt more or less consciously the subjective point of view of the other in relation to oneself.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Self-awareness and agency are crucial for navigating the shared nature of our joint representations, and are essential properties of any autonomous agent.

“Self-awareness and agency are crucial for navigating the shared nature of our joint representations, and are essential properties of any autonomous agent.”

May combine two claims.

One sees others through one's own embodied cognition and uses one's own knowledge (including beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and feelings) as the primary basis for understanding others.

“One sees others through one's own embodied cognition and uses one's own knowledge (including beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and feelings) as the primary basis for understanding others [17,38].”

• cites [17]Not checked yet

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• cites [38]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

People are fundamentally egocentric and have difficulty getting beyond their own perspective when anticipating what others are thinking or feeling, especially when trying to understand the states of mind of people who are perceived as being similar to themselves.

“Stated in other words, people are fundamentally egocentric and have difficulty getting beyond their own perspective when anticipating what others are thinking or feeling, especially when trying to understand the states of mind of people who are perceived as being similar to themselves.”

• cites [84]Not checked yet

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• cites [85]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The medial prefrontal cortex is involved not only when one reflects on oneself, but also when individuals intentionally adopt the subjective perspective of others.

“However, the medial prefrontal cortex is not only involved when one reflects on oneself, but also when individuals intentionally adopt the subjective perspective of others.”

May combine two claims.

In an fMRI study, the self-referential condition induced bilateral activation in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, whereas the other referential condition induced activation in lateral prefrontal areas.

“Results showed that the self-referential condition induced bilateral activation in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, whereas the other referential condition induced activation in lateral prefrontal areas.”

• cites [88]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Mental flexibility and self-regulation are important components of empathy.

“Hence, mental flexibility and self-regulation are important components of empathy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

An essential aspect of empathy is to recognize the other person as like the self, while maintaining a clear separation between self and other.

“An essential aspect of empathy is to recognize the other person as like the self, while maintaining a clear separation between self and other.”

May combine two claims.

Frontal damage may result in impaired perspective-taking ability and a lack of cognitive flexibility.

“Frontal damage may result in impaired perspective-taking ability and a lack of cognitive flexibility [92].”

• cites [92]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Self-referential processing and perspective-taking recruit distinct regions of the MPFC, and the left dorsal MPFC may be involved in decoupling one's own from other people's perspectives on the self.

“Findings from this study indicate that self-referential processing and perspective-taking recruit distinct regions of the MPFC and suggest that the left dorsal MPFC may be involved in decoupling one's own from other people's perspectives on the self.”

May combine two claims.

Right frontal lobe lesions are associated with impaired visual perspective taking, whereas medial frontal lesions, particularly right ventral, are associated with impaired detection of deception.

“Right frontal lobe lesions were associated with impaired visual perspective taking, whereas medial frontal lesions, particularly right ventral, were associated with impaired detection of deception.”

• cites [94]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The frontopolar cortex is involved in the process of evaluating self-generated responses, and is recruited when the task requires monitoring and manipulation of information that has been internally represented.

“There is evidence that the frontopolar cortex is involved in the process of evaluating self-generated responses, and is recruited when the task requires monitoring and manipulation of information that has been internally represented [96].”

• cites [96]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Chronic incapacity to suppress negative emotion may be a key factor in anxiety, and aggressive and violent behavior.

“Chronic incapacity to suppress negative emotion may be a key factor in anxiety, and aggressive and violent behavior [101].”

• cites [101]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Individuals who can regulate their emotions are more likely to experience empathy, and also to act in morally desirable ways with others.

“It has been demonstrated that individuals who can regulate their emotions are more likely to experience empathy, and also to act in morally desirable ways with others [97].”

• cites [97]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A deficit in empathy is related to poor performance of cognitive flexibility tasks among patients with lesions in the dorsolateral regions, whereas those with orbitofrontal cortex lesions are more impaired in empathy but not in cognitive flexibility.

“In addition, a number of clinical studies reported a relationship between the deficit in empathy and poor performance of cognitive flexibility tasks among patients with lesions in the dorsolateral regions, whereas those with orbitofrontal cortex lesions were more impaired in empathy but not in cognitive flexibility [105,106].”

• cites [105]Not checked yet

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• cites [106]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The automatic activation of shared representations, without self-awareness and emotion regulation, would be associated with anxiety and discomfort and would lead to self-oriented responses such as emotional distress.

“The automatic activation of shared representations would instead be associated with anxiety and discomfort and would lead to responses oriented to the self (e.g., emotional distress).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Empathy is an intentional capacity.

“This makes empathy, as described here, an intentional capacity.”

May combine two claims.

Patients with ventromedial lesions were most impaired in the faux pas task but presented normal performance in the second-order belief tasks.

“They found that patients with ventromedial lesions were most impaired in the faux pas task but presented normal performance in the second-order belief tasks.”

• cites [108]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Human empathy cannot be described only as a simple resonance of affect between the self and other; it is both about sharing and understanding the emotional state of others in relation to oneself.

“Thus human empathy cannot be described only as a simple resonance of affect between the self and other. Indeed, empathy is both about sharing and understanding the emotional state of others in relation to oneself.”

May combine two claims.

Part of the neural network (including the anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula) mediating self-experienced pain is shared when empathizing or observing pain in others, and non-overlapping aspects within these regions are specifically activated for the self or the other.

“Indeed, all these studies have shown that part of the neural network (including the anterior cingulate cortex and the anterior insula) mediating self-experienced pain is shared when empathizing or observing the pain in others, and also that non-overlapping aspects within these regions are specifically activated for the self or the other.”

• cites [55]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Empathy necessitates emotion regulation, in which the ventral prefrontal cortex, with its strong connections with the limbic system, dorsolateral, and medial prefrontal areas, plays an important role.

“Finally, empathy also necessitates emotion regulation in which the ventral prefrontal cortex, with its strong connections with the limbic system, dorsolateral, and medial prefrontal areas, plays an important role.”

May combine two claims.

Empathy involves an explicit representation of the subjectivity of the other and a minimal self-other distinction.

“It involves an explicit representation of the subjectivity of the other and a minimal self-other distinction.”

May combine two claims.

The capacity for two people to resonate with each other emotionally, prior to any cognitive understanding, is the basis for developing shared emotional meanings, but is not sufficient for empathy.

“The capacity for two people to resonate with each other emotionally, prior to any cognitive understanding, is the basis for developing shared emotional meanings, but is not sufficient for empathy.”

May combine two claims.

The psychopath cannot simulate emotions he cannot experience, and must rely exclusively on cognitive inputs to his theory of mind mechanism.

“The psychopath cannot simulate emotions he cannot experience, and must rely exclusively on cognitive inputs to his theory of mind mechanism.”

• cites [124]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Personal and vicarious experiences at some level differ physiologically and result in qualitatively distinct responses.

“This supports the idea that personal and vicarious experiences at some level differ physiologically [120] and result in qualitatively distinct responses.”

• cites [120]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Our model of empathy predicts that affective/reactive aggression would lack executive control (particularly self-control) and emotion regulation, whereas predatory/instrumental aggression would have some dysfunctions in sharing feelings with others.

“Our model of empathy predicts that the former type of personality would lack executive control (particularly self-control) and emotion regulation, whereas the latter personality would have some dysfunctions in sharing feelings with others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The capacity to regulate emotions is an important aspect of our ability to interact appropriately with other people.

“Overall, the capacity to regulate emotions is an important aspect of our ability to interact appropriately with other people.”

May combine two claims.

Qualitative differences exist in the nature of underlying deficits, and this supports the assertion that empathy entails a number of distinct components mediated by isolable neural systems.

“However qualitative differences exist in the nature of underlying deficits, and this supports our assertion that empathy entails a number of distinct components mediated by isolable neural systems.”

May combine two claims.

Individuals with antisocial personality disorder have generally intact executive functions and can successfully complete Theory of Mind tasks.

“This view is compatible with the fact that individuals with this disorder have generally intact executive functions and can successfully complete Theory of Mind tasks [121].”

• cites [121]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

People with antisocial personality disorders are probably good at perceiving others' intentions, while disregarding the emotional content, and thus may take advantage of it.

“In fact, people with antisocial personality disorders are probably good at perceiving others' intentions, while disregarding the emotional content, however, and thus may take advantage of it.”

May combine two claims.

Measurements of glucose metabolism in two groups of affective and predatory murderers have shown that the first group has lower prefrontal activity, and the second group has similar prefrontal activity as compared to controls, but lower activity at the subcortical level including the amygdala.

“Interestingly, measurements of glucose metabolism in two groups of affective and predatory murderers have shown that the first group has lower prefrontal activity, and the second group has similar prefrontal activity as compared to controls, but lower activity at the subcortical level including the amygdala [129].”

• cites [129]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The empirical evidence reviewed illuminates the neurobiological underpinnings of the different components of empathy and strongly suggests that lesion to different cortical and sub-cortical structures or circuits can lead to an alteration of empathy or even a lack of empathic ability.

“The empirical evidence reviewed here illuminates the neurobiological underpinnings of the different components of empathy and strongly suggests the view that lesion to different cortical and sub-cortical structures or circuits can lead to an alteration of empathy or even a lack of empathic ability.”

May combine two claims.

Empathy deficit in antisocial personality disorder has been suggested to come from a reduced ability to feel other people's emotional state, and more so for sadness and fear.

“Empathy deficit in antisocial personality disorder has been suggested to come from a reduced ability to feel other people's emotional state, and more so for sadness and fear [122].”

• cites [122]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

It remains possible that empathy deficits in autism are related to disruption of either emotion sharing or mental flexibility/self regulation components, or even both.

“Indeed, it remains possible that empathy deficits in autism are related to disruption of either emotion sharing or mental flexibility/self regulation components, or even both.”

May combine two claims.

In the context of empathy, both emotional and cognitive function and interaction between the two components may be altered in patients with BPD.

“In the context of empathy, both emotional and cognitive function and interaction between two components may be altered in patients with BPD.”

May combine two claims.

BPD includes 'hyper-sensitivity' in the limbic system primarily including the amygdala and a hypofunction of the prefrontal cortices.

“All these studies described above suggest that BPD includes 'hyper-sensitivity' in the limbic system primarily including the amygdala and a hypofunction of the prefrontal cortices.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Abnormalities of brain function in areas associated with cognition, affect, emotion regulation, and impulsivity, particularly in the prefrontal cortex and the temporal lobe including the amygdala and/or hippocampus, are present in borderline personality disorder.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Children with autism have a hard time feeling and expressing emotion, and this basic deficit prevents them from engaging in social interactions.

“Other authors believe that children with autism have a hard time feeling and expressing emotion, and that this basic deficit prevents them from engaging in social interactions [137].”

• cites [137]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Underpinnings of the lack of empathy in NPD seem common with that in BPD, although it is supposed that BPD contains dysregulation in more affective aspects than NPD from empirical clinical observation.

“Although there is scarcely neuroscientific evidence in NPD (c.f., [134]), underpinnings of the lack of empathy in NPD seem common with that in BPD, although it is supposed that BPD contains dysregulation in more affective aspects than NPD from empirical clinical observation.”

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• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Patients with narcissistic personality disorder might have a reduced affective neural component of empathy.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: People with narcissistic personality disorder have difficulty recognizing the needs and feelings of others.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

These different views (imitation/emotions sharing vs. executive functions) may not be as incompatible as it seems.

“These different views (imitation/emotions sharing vs. executive functions) may not be as incompatible as it seems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Deficits in executive functions are the major cause for the social/communicative disorders observed in autism.

“Others still, like Russell [68], argue that deficits in executive functions are the major cause for the social/communicative disorders observed in autism.”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

The social impairment in autism arises from a failure of a mentalizing mechanism (a theory-of-mind module).

“For instance, Baron-Cohen and colleagues [136] put forward the hypothesis that the social impairment in autism arises from a failure of a mentalizing mechanism (a theory-of-mind module).”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Autism involves impairment in attentional functioning for social stimuli (e.g., facial expressions, speech, gestures).

“Finally, Dawson [139] proposed that autism involves impairment in attentional functioning for social stimuli (e.g., facial expressions, speech, gestures).”

• cites [139]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Growing evidence suggests disruption of both the motor/affective and meta-cognitive self-regulational aspects of empathy in ASD.

“However, as noted above, there are growing evidences suggesting that disruption of both the motor/affective and meta-cognitive self-regulational aspects of empathy.”

May combine two claims.

Children with autism present a difficulty in taking the perspective of others, which requires executive resources, but they seem to have the physiological substrate to display affective sharing abilities.

“It is likely that these children present a difficulty in taking the perspective of others, which requires executive resources, but they seem to have the physiological substrate to display affective sharing abilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

To date, it is not clear what aspect of empathy is dysfunctional in ASD, and there is not enough empirical research that has addressed this question.

“It should be noted that, to date, it is not clear what aspect of empathy is dysfunctional in ASD, and there is not enough empirical research that has addressed this question.”

May combine two claims.

Alexithymia is a personal trait that is prevalent in broad psychiatric and psychosomatic spectrums, which are characterized by deficits in empathy, such as autistic spectrum disorder, schizophrenia, borderline, narcissistic and psychopathic personality disorders.

“Although alexithymia is not a diagnostic disorder, it is a personal trait that is prevalent in broad psychiatric and psychosomatic spectrums, which are characterized by deficits in empathy, such as autistic spectrum disorder [153-155], schizophrenia [156-161], borderline [162], narcissistic [163] and psychopathic personality disorders [164].”

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• cites [160]Not checked yet

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• cites [161]Not checked yet

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• cites [162]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Both impairment in executive functions and emotion sharing may account for the empathy deficit in autism.

“Altogether, both impairment in executive functions and emotion sharing may account for the empathy deficit in autism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Individuals with autism appear to have deficiencies over broader aspects of empathy, although this notion needs to be clarified in the future.

“Individuals with autism appear to have deficiencies over broader aspects of empathy, although this notion needs to be clarified in the future.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Empathy emerges from the flow and integration of information between specific brain circuits.

“Like many complex experiences, empathy emerges from the flow and integration of information between specific brain circuits.”

May combine two claims.

These facts also support the importance of self-awareness in empathy, and these cognitive impairments underlie and constitute core psychopathology related to the social and interpersonal difficulties in various psychiatric disorders listed above.

“These facts also support the importance of self-awareness in empathy, and these cognitive impairments underlie and constitute core psychopathology related to the social and interpersonal difficulties in various psychiatric disorders listed above.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The empathy response is contingent on cognitive, as well as emotional, factors and involves parallel and distributed processing in a number of dissociable computational mechanisms.

“This response is contingent on cognitive, as well as emotional, factors and involves parallel and distributed processing in a number of dissociable computational mechanisms.”

May combine two claims.

Alexithymic people showed low theory of mind ability when they mentalize the moving triangle animation and, using fMRI, low neural activity in medial prefrontal cortex, which is mostly associated with perspective taking scale.

“Moriguchi and colleagues [165] showed that alexithymic people showed low theory of mind ability when they mentalize the moving triangle animation and, using fMRI, low neural activity in medial prefrontal cortex, which is mostly associated with perspective taking scale.”

• cites [165]Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A population with alexithymia had lower neural activity in medial prefrontal cortex in response to affective pictures, but there is no difference of activation in the brain areas associated with bottom up information processing such as limbic structures (i.e., the amygdala, the hippocampal formation, and the hypothalamus), which play a central role in emotional response to simple perceptual and ss

“Another fMRI study [166] also showed that a population with alexithymia had lower neural activity in medial prefrontal cortex in response to affective pictures, but there is no difference of activation in the brain areas associated with bottom up information processing such as limbic structures (i.e., the amygdala, the hippocampal formation, and the hypothalamus), which play a central role in”

• cites [166]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Empathy is a fundamental ability for social interaction and moral reasoning.

“Empathy is a fundamental ability for social interaction and moral reasoning.”

May combine two claims.

Alexithymic participants scored lower on the pain ratings and on the scores related to cognitive mature empathy.

“Furthermore, alexithymic participants scored lower on the pain ratings and on the scores related to cognitive mature empathy.”

• cites [63]Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The available empirical evidence from the various forms of empathy disorders in psychiatry population fits neatly with a multiple-component model.

“Taken together, the available empirical evidence from the various forms of empathy disorders in psychiatry population fits neatly with a multiple-component model.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The relation between empathy and prosocial motivation is far from being simple and direct.

“Further, empathy may be a prerequisite for altruism, but the relation between empathy and prosocial motivation is far from being simple and direct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

To provide interpretable data, neuroscience experiments require intra-individual comparisons and repeated-measures designs.

“To provide interpretable data, neuroscience experiments require intra-individual comparisons and repeated-measures designs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Empathy may be a prerequisite for altruism.

“Further, empathy may be a prerequisite for altruism, but the relation between empathy and prosocial motivation is far from being simple and direct.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Both biology and experience contribute to empathy and sympathy in complex interactive, bidirectional ways.

“Both biology and experience contribute to empathy and sympathy in complex interactive, bidirectional ways.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

This is but one example of the perennial challenge objective science faces in the attempt to understand human subjectivity in all its richness and complexity.

“This is but one example of the perennial challenge objective science faces in the attempt to understand human subjectivity in all its richness and complexity [167].”

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Current trends in empathy theory suggest that empathy involves partly dissociable components, including shared neural affective representations, self-awareness, mental flexibility, and emotion regulation.

“Current trends in empathy theory suggest that it involves partly dissociable components, including shared neural affective representations, self-awareness, mental flexibility, and emotion regulation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These basic macro-components of empathy are mediated by specific and interacting neural systems.

“These basic macro-components of empathy are mediated by specific and interacting neural systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

To be financially feasible, neuroscience experiments require small samples.

“To be financially feasible, they require small samples.”