Sex differences in impulsivity: A meta-analysis.
Open accessAbstract
Men are overrepresented in socially problematic behaviors, such as aggression and criminal behavior, which have been linked to impulsivity. Our review of impulsivity is organized around the tripartite theoretical distinction between reward hypersensitivity, punishment hyposensitivity, and inadequate effortful control. Drawing on evolutionary, criminological, developmental, and personality theories, we predicted that sex differences would be most pronounced in risky activities with men demonstrating greater sensation seeking, greater reward sensitivity, and lower punishment sensitivity. We predicted a small female advantage in effortful control. We analyzed 741 effect sizes from 277 studies, including psychometric and behavioral measures. Women were consistently more punishment sensitive (d = -0.33), but men did not show greater reward sensitivity (d = 0.01). Men showed significantly higher sensation seeking on questionnaire measures (d = 0.41) and on a behavioral risk-taking task (d = 0.36). Questionnaire measures of deficits in effortful control showed a very modest effect size in the male direction (d = 0.08). Sex differences were not found on delay discounting or executive function tasks. The results indicate a stronger sex difference in motivational rather than effortful or executive forms of behavior control. Specifically, they support evolutionary and biological theories of risk taking predicated on sex differences in punishment sensitivity. A clearer understanding of sex differences in impulsivity depends upon recognizing important distinctions between sensation seeking and impulsivity, between executive and effortful forms of control, and between impulsivity as a deficit and as a trait.
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Males were higher than females on risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17-0.36).
“risk-taking (SMDs = 0.17–SMD = 0.36)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Cross et al., 2011
Males were higher than females on patience (SMD = 0.05).
“patience (SMD = 0.05)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Cross et al., 2011
Males were higher than females on general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09).
“general impulsivity (SMD = 0.09”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Cross et al., 2011
Males were higher than females on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13).
“Males, on the other hand, were higher on negative reciprocity (SMD = 0.13)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Cross et al., 2011
Males were higher than females on narcissism (SMD = 0.27).
“narcissism (SMD = 0.27)”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Cross et al., 2011
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- Authors
- Cross, C. P., Copping, L. T., & Campbell, A.
- Affiliations
- Durham University (GB)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011-01
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 97-130
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2066542601
- Cited by
- 866
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 51 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 105 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 76 · 2017: 66 · 2016: 51 · 2015: 60 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 49 · 2012: 20
- FWCI
- 22.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Teesside University Research Portal (Teesside University) (publishedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- St Andrews Research Repository (St Andrews Research Repository) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Durham University
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychopathy, Forensic Psychiatry, Sexual Offending
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- sex differences, impulsivity, punishment sensitivity, reward sensitivity, effortful control, sensation seeking, risk-taking, delay discounting, executive function, aggression, criminal behavior, evolutionary psychology, criminology
- MeSH terms
- Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Models, Psychological, Psychological Tests, Psychometrics, Risk-Taking, Sex Factors
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