The DOI matches its Crossref record; 91 of the 91 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 6 of the 48 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Cohort differences in cognitive aging and terminal decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study.
Open accessAbstract
Life span researchers have long been interested in how and why fundamental aspects of human ontogeny differ between cohorts of people who have lived through different historical epochs. When examined at the same age, later born cohorts are often cognitively and physically fitter than earlier born cohorts. Less is known, however, about cohort differences in the rate of cognitive aging and if, at the very end of life, pervasive mortality-related processes overshadow and minimize cohort differences. We used data on 5 primary mental abilities from the Seattle Longitudinal Study (Schaie, 2005) to compare both age-related and mortality-related changes between earlier born cohorts (1886-1913) and later born cohorts (1914-1948). Our models covary for several individual and cohort differences in central indicators of life expectancy, education, health, and gender. Age-related growth models corroborate and extend earlier findings by documenting level differences at age 70 of up to 0.50 SD and less steep rates of cognitive aging on all abilities between 50 and 80 years of age favoring the later born cohort. In contrast, mortality-related models provide limited support for positive cohort differences. The later born cohort showed steeper mortality-related declines. We discuss possible reasons why often reported positive secular trends in age-related processes may not generalize to the vulnerable segment of the population that is close to death and suggest routes for further inquiry.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In the Seattle Longitudinal Study, later-born cohorts (1914–1948) had higher cognitive levels at age 70 and shallower age-related declines from 50 to 80 than earlier-born cohorts (1886–1913), but these advantages largely did not extend to terminal decline. In mortality-related models, positive cohort differences appeared only for verbal meaning, while later-born participants showed steeper terminal declines on four of five abilities.
Key findings
- Age-related growth models showed later-born cohorts outperformed earlier-born cohorts at age 70 by up to 0.50 SD on four of five primary mental abilities, with cohort intercept differences ranging from 2.353 for fluency to 5.818 for reasoning; number ability was the exception.
- Later-born cohorts also had shallower linear age-related declines on all five abilities, with effects ranging from 0.060 for number to 0.231 for verbal meaning, and less pronounced concave curvature on reasoning, number, and verbal meaning.
- Mortality-related models provided limited support for positive cohort differences: later-born participants outperformed earlier-born participants at 3 years before death only on verbal meaning (γ07 = 2.660), with no significant cohort differences for spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, or word fluency.
- Later-born participants scored 0.465 SD lower on number ability at 3 years before death and experienced steeper linear terminal decline on four of five abilities, with effect sizes from 0.247 for spatial orientation to 0.446 for number ability; they also showed greater convex curvature on all five abilities.
Methods
- Data came from the Seattle Longitudinal Study, a cohort-sequential panel launched in 1956 with eight waves at 7-year intervals through 2005 (49 years). The analyzed subsample compared participants born 1886–1913 with those born 1914–1948; age models used N = 1,980 and terminal-decline models used N = 891.
- Cognitive outcomes were five Thurstone Primary Mental Abilities subtests—spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, word fluency, number, and verbal meaning—scaled to T scores (M = 50, SD = 10).
- Multilevel growth curve models estimated linear and quadratic change over age (centered at 70) and time to death (centered at 3 years before death), with cohort and covariates including education, circulatory disease, cancer, gender, and, for mortality models, age at study entry and age at death; models were fit with SAS Proc Mixed.
Limitations
- The paper states that the SLS sample was recruited through one large HMO in the Pacific Northwest, was community-dwelling and approximately represented the upper 75% of the socioeconomic spectrum, and may not be equally representative of the cohorts; the later-born terminal subsample died at younger ages and may have been less healthy, and covariates may only partially capture selectivity.
- The paper also states that terminal models had lower statistical power, fewer participants and observations, no more than five age-model and four mortality-model data points per person, 7-year measurement intervals that may miss accelerations, and quadratic models that may poorly approximate terminal decline as a phase transition; the study was descriptive rather than causal, lacked direct data on qualitative education, modeled health as ever-diagnosed rather than severity or decline, and examined only the cognitive domain.
- Evident from the text: age and mortality models were based on different, only partly overlapping subsamples and were not directly compared, so age-related and terminal-decline findings are not within the same analytic sample.
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Claims the paper makes
6 of 48 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Schaie, Willis, and Pennak (2005) reported cohort differences in rates of cognitive aging among SLS participants that typically favored later born cohorts, particularly on reasoning and verbal meaning abilities.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Schaie, Willis, and Pennak (2005) sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Cohort Differences in Rate of Age-Related Change” (page unavailable), the paper reports a difference in aging trajectories between older cohorts, with the slope particularly favoring the later-born cohort for verbal meaning. It also reports gains in inductive reasoning for later-born cohorts, but describes those as differences in performance level, not clearly as differences in rates of cognitive aging. Thus the claim’s emphasis on reasoning as an aging-rate finding is not fully supported. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, in the last years of life no differences in average levels of cognitive functioning were apparent on three of the five PMAs, and evidence of negative secular trends emerged.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“no significant cohort differences in ability levels were found for spatial orientation, inductive reasoning, and word fluency.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“A second implication arising from the approach we chose to define our cohorts is that the earlier born cohort primarily died in the 1980s or before (median year of death = 1987), whereas the later born cohort primarily died in the 1990s or after (median year of death = 2001).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“the later born cohort was characterized by greater convex curvature on all five abilities (e.g., reasoning: −0.014).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“The overall pattern that emerged in the terminal decline models relative to the cognitive aging models indicated very few positive secular trends.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“the concave curvature was somewhat less pronounced for the later born cohort on three of the five abilities tested (reasoning, 0.004; number, 0.004; verbal, 0.008).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“birth cohort related positively to intercepts and linear age-related changes in four of the five abilities.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“In particular, the later born cohort performed lower on number ability and showed steeper mortality-related declines on all five abilities.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“all models indicate a prototypical trajectory that is characterized by linear decline with some acceleration.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“The later born cohort outperformed, on average, the earlier born cohort at 3 years prior to death (γ07 = 2.660).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“the later born cohort scored, on average, 0.465 SD lower on number ability at 3 years before death than did the earlier born cohort.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“the later born cohort experienced steeper linear rates of terminal decline on four of the five abilities, with effect sizes ranging between 0.247 for spatial orientation and 0.446 for number ability.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“Although secular trends would have suggested longer life expectancies, participants in our later born cohort had died at younger ages than those in the earlier born cohort, suggesting that this subsample was probably less representative and included relatively more unhealthy participants.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“Overall, age-related growth models, covarying for education, circulatory disease, cancer, and gender, revealed substantial cohort differences in cognitive aging between age 50 and age 80 years.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“The overall pattern of cognitive change is consistent with other reports of the precipitous proximate-to-death declines across various measures of cognitive abilities”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
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In the paper
“the presence of circulatory disease related to steeper cognitive aging trajectories on reasoning (γl2 = −0.045) and fluency (γl2 =−0.044).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, the later born cohort performed lower on number ability and showed steeper mortality-related declines on all five abilities.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“several interaction effects, conjointly indicating that advantages for women and those with higher education were somewhat more pronounced in the later born cohort.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A second implication arising from the approach we chose to define our cohorts is that the earlier born cohort primarily died in the 1980s or before (median year of death = 1987), whereas the later born cohort primarily died in the 1990s or after (median year of death = 2001).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“SLS participants diagnosed with circulatory diseases experienced steeper mortality-related decline on reasoning (γl4 = −0.062) and fluency (γl4 = −0.078).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“All five measures of cognitive ability exhibited sizable proportions of within-person variation, ranging between .21 for reasoning and .33 for spatial orientation in the sample used for the cognitive aging models and between .30 for word fluency and .44 for spatial orientation in the sample used for the terminal decline models.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results
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In the paper
“mortality-related models indicated that positive cohort differences in terminal decline were present on verbal meaning only.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“Relative to those born earlier, individuals in the later born cohort showed, on average, considerably better cognitive functioning at age 70 as well as shallower rates of cognitive decline from age 50 to age 80.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion
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In the paper
“In contrast, the later born cohort was found to experience steeper mortality-related declines than the earlier born cohort.”
- Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
“In contrast, the later born cohort experienced steeper mortality-related declines.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“more educated persons performed better on all cognitive tests (e.g., for spatial orientation, γ01 = 0.310)”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“It was only on verbal meaning that later born participants outperformed earlier born participants.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“In contrast, in the last years of life no differences in average levels of cognitive functioning were apparent on three of the five PMAs, and evidence of negative secular trends emerged.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“the positive Education × Cohort interaction indicates that differences in cognitive performances between educational strata were more pronounced in the later born cohort than in the earlier born cohort.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“Average levels of abilities at 3 years prior to death were up to one standard deviation below the mean of the cross-sectional (at study entry) sample (reasoning: γ00 = 39.818).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“As shown in Figure 3, mortality-related growth models covarying for differences in age at T1, age at death, education, circulatory disease, cancer, and gender provided little evidence of positive secular trends.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
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In the paper
“Relative to those born earlier, individuals in the later born cohort showed, on average, considerably better cognitive functioning at age 70 as well as shallower rates of cognitive decline from age 50 to age 80.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion
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In the paper
“The only measure that did not reveal evidence for positive cohort effects was number ability.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
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In the paper
“For terminal decline, in contrast, the growth models revealed very little evidence of positive cohort differences.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion
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“These notions suggest that despite an increasing need for cultural resources, there is an ever declining efficiency of those resources to overcome age-related decrements.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baltes & Smith, 2003 source
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In the paper
“evidence of mean-level differences in cognition and health suggests that, when examined at the same age range, later born cohorts are typically cognitively and physically fitter than earlier born cohorts”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Alwin, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Bäckman, Small, Wahlin, & Larsson, 2000
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crimmins, Hayward, & Saito, 1996 source
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In the paper
“Second, rapid increases in life expectancy imply that a greater number of relatively lower functioning segments of one’s birth cohort reach higher and higher ages (Singer et al., 2003).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Singer et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At the same time, we acknowledge that participants were recruited through membership in one large HMO in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States and may thus not necessarily be equally representative for the cohorts under study.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“Although we modeled quadratic trends, the ability to detect interindividual differences in those trends was limited by the fact that participants contributed no more than five data points to the age models and no more than four data points to the mortality models.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“Comparative analyses from the SLS suggest that the amount of positive selection of the general SLS participant base is relatively minor (e.g., educational attainment: Hauser & Featherman, 1976; cf. Schaie et al., 2005).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hauser & Featherman, 1976 source
- Not matchedcites Schaie et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The results suggested that participants born during the first and the second quarters of the 20th century did not differ in rates of cognitive aging for a variety of abilities, including performances on spatial and verbal tests.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Finkel, Reynolds, McArdle, and Pedersen (2007) source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We discuss possible factors underlying these findings and conclude that positive secular trends reported for age-related processes do not generalize to mortality-related processes.”
- Also stated in: § Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline · hedged
“For the time being, our initial findings suggest that positive secular trends often reported for cognitive aging do not extend to terminal cognitive decline.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These limitations include that statistical power was certainly lower in the terminal decline models relative to the cognitive aging models, simply because these analyses were based on fewer participants and fewer longitudinal observations.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears that cohort improvements made in age-related mental capacity do not necessarily generalize to the end of life and thereby to one of the most vulnerable segments of our societies.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Synopsis
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In the paper
“This of course is an empirical question, and our univariate results based on the cognitive domain suggest otherwise.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“First, survival at the end of life becomes increasingly more “manufactured” (Olshansky, Hayflick, & Carnes, 2002).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Olshansky, Hayflick, & Carnes, 2002 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather than indexing general secular trends, the negative cohort differences observed over time to death may instead be reflective of differences in lifestyles, health behaviors, and cause of death.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
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In the paper
“Our rationale was that historical increases in the quantity of educational attainment during the 20th century are a major factor underlying cognitive cohort differences (Alwin & McCammon, 2001; Hauser & Huang, 1997; Rönnlund et al., 2005).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Possible Factors Underlying Cohort Differences
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This approach, however, may have only partially captured selectivity-related differences between the cohorts.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Instead, cohort differences may be seen as a proxy for moderator variables that at best slow the rate of decline.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine cohort differences in terminal decline.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Not surprisingly, historical cohort or generational improvements in mental capacity do not outweigh the negative effects of aging-related factors.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results are in line with the idea that mortality-related mechanisms and the progressive processes leading toward death (e.g., deteriorating health) are so pervasive that they override historical, cohort-related effects that were apparent earlier in life.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesWhat the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results are thus net of the effects of well-established secular trends in educational systems (operationally defined as years of schooling) as well as disease prevalence (operationally defined as the presence of circulatory diseases and cancer).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Possible Factors Underlying Cohort Differences
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Relative to those born later, cohorts born before 1940 showed steeper age-related declines on advanced vocabulary knowledge”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bowles, Grimm, and McArdle (2005) source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Taken together, these reports suggest that cohort differences in levels of cognitive functioning known from studies of children and young adults (see Flynn, 2007) extend to midlife and old age.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Flynn, 2007 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These factors thus helped to accommodate longitudinal selectivity under the assumption that incomplete data were missing at random (Little & Rubin, 1987; McArdle, 1994).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Analysis
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Little & Rubin, 1987
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites McArdle, 1994 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: Incomplete longitudinal data were missing at random.
- Not matched
- Probably not a substantial claim. 41
- It may state two separate claims as one. 24
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“gender differences in cognitive functioning have long been documented, with men typically outperforming women on tasks assessing visuospatial and arithmetric processing, whereas women typically outperform men on tasks involving reasoning and verbal abilities”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Maitland, Herlitz, Nyberg, Backman, & Nilsson, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports that women outperformed men on verbal fluency, supporting the verbal-ability portion of the claim. The paper's comparisons concern declarative memory; the passages do not establish a female advantage in reasoning or a male advantage in visuospatial or arithmetic processing. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Partly supportedcites Meinz & Salthouse, 1998 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Gender Effects section reports a male advantage on spatial tasks, and the Discussion describes a male advantage on quantitative measures and reports prior findings of a female advantage in verbal abilities. But this study found that males outperformed females on reasoning tasks, while its differences in verbal fluency and knowledge were not significant. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Zelinski and Kennison (2007) applied growth models to data from the Long Beach Longitudinal Study (LBLS) and reported that the rate of cognitive aging from age 55 to age 87 on measures of reasoning, spatial abilities, and vocabulary showed minimal if any differences between age-matched cohorts born 1893–1923 and those born 1908–1940.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Zelinski and Kennison (2007) source
The Method (Participants) identifies age-matched Long Beach Longitudinal Study cohorts born in 1893–1923 and 1908–1940, analyzed across ages 55–87. The Results report no cohort-by-age interaction for reasoning or space; vocabulary had a significant but small interaction in the older age range (d = .16). This supports the claim of minimal, rather than no, differences in rates of decline. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Following notions of cognitive reserve (Hall et al., 2009; Stern et al., 1999), later born cohorts may enter such phases of precipitous decline later than earlier born cohorts.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Hall et al., 2009 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion (page unavailable) report that greater cognitive activity was associated with a later onset of accelerated memory decline among participants who developed dementia. The paper supports the cognitive-reserve rationale, but it does not compare earlier- and later-born cohorts or establish that later-born cohorts enter this phase later. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stern et al., 1999 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“empirical evidence indicates that disability hazards are indeed lower for later born cohorts”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Crimmins et al., 1996 source
- Could not verifycites Graham, Blakely, Davis, Sporle, & Pearce, 2004 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Statistical methods section models mortality hazards but functional limitation prevalence, not disability hazards. The Changes between 1981 and 1996 section compares prevalence across survey years; it does not compare disability hazards by birth cohort. Searches for cohort-specific disability incidence and hazards found no such result in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Manton et al., 2008 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the negative coefficient for gender indicates that men, on average, outperformed women on measures of spatial orientation (γ04 = −2.745) and number (γ04 = −1.020)”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For cognitive aging, our results suggest systematic and substantial positive trends in cohort levels and in cohort changes.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Synopsis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With the exception of number ability, cohort differences in intercept ranged between 2.353 for fluency and 5.818 for reasoning, indicating that the later born cohort outperformed the earlier born cohort at age 70 by up to half a standard deviation.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The later born cohort was favored both in level of cognitive functioning at age 70 years and in rate of cognitive decline.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“having died at an older age related to both lower levels of cognitive capacity at 3 years prior to death and steeper rates of terminal decline (e.g., for word fluency: γ02 = −0.276; γl2 = −0.006).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cohorts also differed significantly in linear rates of cognitive aging. Effects ranged between 0.060 for number and 0.231 for verbal meaning, each being indicative of shallower cognitive aging trajectories for SLS participants born in 1914 or later.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For terminal cognitive decline, in contrast, our findings suggest a less optimistic outlook, with very little evidence of positive historical effects and several more consistent indications of negative secular trends.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Synopsis
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the linear component of decline for reasoning amounted to about a quarter of a standard deviation per 10 years of age (e.g., γ10 = −0.297), which together with some concave curvature (γ20 = − 0.007) brought the average individual to an ability level at age 70 (γ00 = 43.722) that was more than half a standard deviation below the mean for all cross-sectional SLS participants”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the positive gender coefficient shows that women performed, on average, better than men on tasks assessing reasoning (γ04 = 2.035), fluency (γ04 = 3.602), and verbal meaning (γ04 = 2.257).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“average rates of mortality-related linear decline ranged between γ10 = −0.298 for reasoning and γ10 = −0.853 for verbal meaning, and all measures showed accelerations in decline (i.e., quadratic change, e.g., γ20 = −0.020 for verbal meaning).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Results > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It must be noted that our study is primarily descriptive in nature and was not designed to tie cohort differences to particular causal mechanisms.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is possible, for example, that individuals in the later born cohort were more likely to die from aggressive forms of cancer and to experience steeper terminal decline.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The broader conceptual argument for such an examination is borrowed from the compression-of-morbidity perspective, according to which positive secular trends result in a delayed onset of chronic diseases and an increasingly short period of morbidity at the very end of life (Fries, 1980).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fries, 1980 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To examine if secular trends emerge in terminal decline that are independent of known cohort differences, we statistically controlled for these differences in our models (i.e., age at Time 1 [T1] and age at death were used as covariates)”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Preparation
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our models covary for several individual and cohort differences in central indicators of life expectancy, education, health, and gender.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although secular trends would have suggested longer life expectancies, participants in our later born cohort had died at younger ages than those in the earlier born cohort, suggesting that this subsample was probably less representative and included relatively more unhealthy participants.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interaction terms with the cohort variable were tested for all covariates, with only statistically significant terms retained in the final models.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Such quantitative differences in schooling may underlie cohort differences in intellectual performance (e.g., by promoting cognitive reserve; Rönnlund, Nyberg, Bäckman, & Nilsson, 2005; Stern, Albert, Tang, & Tsai, 1999).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our analyses indicate that initial cohort differences in cognitive performance are maintained throughout aging and are even exacerbated with advancing age by shallower age-related declines among individuals born later.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants were community-dwelling individuals in reasonably good health who approximately represent the upper 75% of the socio-economic spectrum.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Annual incidence rates for all forms of cancer had reached an all-time high for people who had entered old age in the 1980s and 1990s (Altekruse et al., 2009).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Altekruse et al., 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Conceptually, this finding is consistent with life span tenets about the vulnerabilities and constraints that appear in very old age and at the end of life (Baltes & Smith, 2003).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baltes & Smith, 2003 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“but some studies indeed have reported gender-differential change”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A less positive selection of later born generations could have led to lower average levels of functioning for members of this generation, thereby offsetting positive secular trends.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Less consistent evidence has been gathered regarding gender differences in cognitive change in later adulthood and old age”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Finkel, Reynolds, McArdle, Gatz, & Pederson, 2003 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Given that health-related indices are among the factors most consistently linked to adult cognitive changes (for review, see Anstey & Christensen, 2000)”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Anstey & Christensen, 2000 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“If so, positive secular trends for verbal meaning may simply have persisted because verbal abilities typically show particularly strong positive secular effect (for a recent meta-analysis, see Uttl & Van Alstine, 2003) that may not get completely washed out by mortality effects.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Uttl & Van Alstine, 2003 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In a similar vein, verbal abilities are more likely to be “practiced” until the end of life as compared with, for example, spatial abilities.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It is well established in the cognitive literature that older adults typically show steep declines in cognitive functioning in the years before death (see Bäckman & MacDonald, 2006).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bäckman & MacDonald, 2006 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If participants in the later born cohort for the age models were indeed unhealthy, the positive secular trends documented over chronological age were underestimating effect sizes in the target population.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Previous, more fine-grained analyses had revealed that number skills reached a peak with the 1924 birth cohort and showed negative cohort differences thereafter.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schaie, 1994, 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the confounding of age effects and cohort effects constitutes a central threat to internal and external validity”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the earlier born cohort, minor forms of disease may already implicate steep cognitive declines.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Possible Factors Underlying Cohort Differences
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We note that age and mortality models are based on different subsamples that only partly overlap. Thus, the two change models were not directly compared with one another”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, the data provide a reasonably large sample of observations on which to examine cohort differences in change.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Analysis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given that verbal meaning is the PMA that is conceptually closest to the crystallized ability domain (Schaie et al., 2005), our results are also consistent with the notion that later born cohorts have greater cognitive reserve, which may mitigate nearness-to-death effects particularly for acculturated abilities (see also Stern et al., 1999).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Schaie et al., 2005
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Stern et al., 1999 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The precautionary steps we took to adjust for this possibility were to include age at assessment, age at death, and the presence of circulatory diseases and cancer as covariates into our models.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We note that the inclusion of age at study entry, age at death, education, circulatory disease, cancer, and gender into our models served to covary for possible confounds and were also attrition-informative variables.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Analysis
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“note that the later born cohort likely was still somewhat favored regarding our research questions.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Data Preparation
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a consequence, cohort differences may also have existed in the treatment of terminal illnesses such as cancer (e.g., chemotherapy, beta blockers), possible cognitive side effects of such treatments, the length of terminal illness and the age at which cognitive pathologies and dementia set in, or place of death (home vs. hospital vs. nursing home).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, once terminal decline has set in, the amount of decline may then be steeper among those born later (e.g., because they have more to lose).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the 7-year intervals between measurement occasions may be too long to fully capture any “accelerations” in how the mortality-related processes unfold.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, positive secular trends that may have existed at an earlier point in life may be offset or even reversed.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cardiovascular and major circulatory diseases, such as heart disease and stroke, have shown persistent declines over the past 30 years, particularly among men”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Aldwin, Spiro, & Park, 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Manton et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the suitability of the quadratic change models for the study of terminal decline might also be viewed as a suboptimal approximation of the terminal decline phenomena—which imply discrete shifts in the rate of decline, a phase transition—rather than as “continuous” (and invariant in time) changes in the rate of change.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One way to interpret our results is that previously higher levels of functioning are not maintained during manufactured survival.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a scenario would even be consistent with the pattern found in our single-phase models.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Limitations and Outlook
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“major legislative changes in the first 20 years of the 20th century (e.g., compulsory school attendance, extended length of the school year) contributed to cohort differences in educational attainment.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > The Current Study
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, cohorts not only differ in such quantitative aspects of education but often also have experienced qualitatively different educational systems (e.g., shift from rote learning to more participatory strategies, such as discovery learning; see Emirbayer, 1992; Schaie, 2008) for which we unfortunately have not had any direct data.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Possible Factors Underlying Cohort Differences
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Emirbayer, 1992 source
- Not matchedcites Schaie, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Provided sufficient technological support, members of the later born cohort may have survived impairments or diseases that have resulted in death among members of earlier born cohorts.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Cohort Differences in Terminal Cognitive Decline
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“All tests showed high test–retest reliabilities over 1 month (based on N = 705; r ≥ .78; see Schaie, 2005).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Measures
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schaie, 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 705Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Interrater reliabilities were high (Cronbach’s α > .90; for details, see Bosworth & Schaie, 1997; Hertzog, Schaie, & Gribbin, 1978).”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Method > Measures
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the later born cohort, in contrast, morbidity-related cognitive declines may not set in until diseases become severe, probably because of advances in health care.”
§ Cohort Differences in Cognitive Aging and Terminal Decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study > Discussion > Possible Factors Underlying Cohort Differences
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Incomplete longitudinal data were missing at random.
“under the assumption that incomplete data were missing at random (Little & Rubin, 1987; McArdle, 1994).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Period or time-of-measurement effects can be ignored.
“Making the simplifying assumption of ignoring period or time-of-measurement effects (for discussion, see Schaie & Herzog, 1983)”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- ConsistentF(1, 5346) = 122.7reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1, 5346) = 122.70, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 2509) = 7.56reported p < .01 · recomputed p = .006
“F(1, 2509) = 7.56, p < .01”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Birth-year range changes from 1886 to 1883
MinorThe methods define the earliest included birth year as 1886, but the discussion describes the analyzed individuals as born as early as 1883.
“individuals born between 1883 and 1948.”
“were born between 1886 and 1913 (earlier born cohort) or 1914 and 1948 (later born cohort)”
Number ability is said to lack positive cohort effects despite a positive rate effect
MinorThe discussion says number ability showed no evidence of positive cohort effects. The results report a significant positive cohort difference in its rate of cognitive aging, favoring the later-born cohort.
“The only measure that did not reveal evidence for positive cohort effects was number ability.”
“Cohorts also differed significantly in linear rates of cognitive aging. Effects ranged between 0.060 for number and 0.231 for verbal meaning, each being indicative of shallower cognitive aging trajectories for SLS participants born in 1914 or later.”
Citations
Cites
Statistical Analysis With Missing Data
Lahiff, M., Little, R. J. A., & Rubin, D. B. (1989) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2289883 · Cited by 17,385
Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195152968.001.0001 · Cited by 10,647
Littell, R. C. (1996) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,345
Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.22.6.723 · Cited by 7,684
Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1997) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/37.4.433 · Cited by 4,347
Kahn, R. L. (1998) · Cited by 4,295
Handbook of the Psychology of Aging
Schaie, K. W., Willis, S. L., Knight, B. G., & Park, D. C. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/c2012-0-07221-3 · Cited by 3,440
Self-citationAging, natural death, and the compression of morbidity
Fries, J. F. (1980) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm198007173030304 · Cited by 3,356
The Contours of Positive Human Health
Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. (1998) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0901_1 · Cited by 2,658
Dannefer, D. (2003) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/58.6.s327 · Cited by 2,091
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Elder GH Jr. Children of the Great Depression: Social change in life experience 1974 University of Chicago Press Chicago, IL
- Flynn JR What is intelligence? 2007 Cambridge University Press Cambridge, England
- Kleemeier RW Intellectual changes in the senium Proceedings of the American Statistical Association 1962 1 290 295
- Ram N Gerstorf D Fauth B Zarit SH Malmberg B Aging, disablement, and dying: Three time metrics for charting late-life change Research in Human Development 2010 7 27 44 PMC3482431 23112747
- Schaie KW Charness N Impact of technology on the aging individual 2003 Springer New York, NY
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224
Clinical epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease: assessing sex and gender differences
Mielke, M., Vemuri, P., & Rocca, W. (2014) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s37929 · Cited by 1,021
Sex differences in cognitive trajectories in clinically normal older adults.
McCarrey, A. C., An, Y., Kitner-Triolo, M. H., Ferrucci, L., & Resnick, S. M. (2016) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000070 · Cited by 452
Christensen, K., Thinggaard, M., Oksuzyan, A., Steenstrup, T., Andersen‐Ranberg, K., Jeune, B., McGue, M. K., & Vaupel, J. W. (2013) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)60777-1 · Cited by 383
Rudolph, C. W., Rauvola, R. S., Costanza, D. P., & Zacher, H. (2020) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-020-09715-2 · Cited by 347
Metadata
- Authors
- Gerstorf, D., Ram, N., Hoppmann, C., Willis, S. L., & Schaie, K. W.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Developmental Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 1026-1041
- ISSN
- 0012-1649 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0599
- PMC
- PMC3134559
- OpenAlex
- W2096560961
- Semantic Scholar
- 2ab94d5387d2bb601150eab791cf97bb782fede8
- Cited by
- 154
- References
- 84
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 13 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 9.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Developmental Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (RC1-AG035645, R21-AG032379, R21-AG033109)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Keywords
- cohort differences, cognitive aging, terminal decline, Seattle Longitudinal Study, primary mental abilities, secular trends, life expectancy, older adults, birth cohort
- MeSH terms
- Age Factors, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Life Expectancy, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Neuropsychological Tests, Spatial Behavior, Time Factors, Washington, Cohort Studies
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-03, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-03 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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