Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods

May combine two claims.

Modern Egyptians share the ancient haplogroup profile but show a marked increase of African mtDNA lineages L0-L4 up to 20%.

“Modern Egyptians share this profile but in addition show a marked increase of African mtDNA lineages L0–L4 up to 20% (consistent with nuclear estimates of 80% non-African ancestry reported in Pagani et al.17).”

• cites Pagani et al. [17] Pagani, L. et al. Tracing the route of modern humans out of Africa by using 225 human genome sequences from Ethiopians and Egyptians. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 96, 986–991 (2015). sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

May combine two claims.

Sample JK2911 had a derived allele at the SLC24A5 locus, which contributes to lighter skin pigmentation and was shown to be at high frequency in Neolithic Anatolia, consistent with the ancestral affinity shown above.

“This individual had a derived allele at the SLC24A5 locus, which contributes to lighter skin pigmentation and was shown to be at high frequency in Neolithic Anatolia41, consistent with the ancestral affinity shown above.”

• cites [41] Mathieson, I. et al. Genome-wide patterns of selection in 230 ancient Eurasians. Nature 528, 499–503 (2015). sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

May combine two claims.

By comparing ancient individuals from Abusir el-Meleq with modern Egyptian reference populations, the study found an influx of sub-Saharan African ancestry after the Roman Period, corroborating Henn and colleagues.

“By comparing ancient individuals from Abusir el-Meleq with modern Egyptian reference populations, we found an influx of sub-Saharan African ancestry after the Roman Period, which corroborates the findings by Henn and colleagues16.”

• cites [16] Henn, B. M. et al. Genomic ancestry of North Africans supports back-to-Africa migrations. PLoS Genet. 8, e1002397 (2012). sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

May combine two claims.

ALDER estimated a putative pulse-like admixture event at 24 generations ago (700 years ago), consistent with previous results from Henn and colleagues.

“We then used ALDER40 to estimate the time of a putative pulse-like admixture event, which was estimated to have occurred 24 generations ago (700 years ago), consistent with previous results from Henn and colleagues16.”

• cites [40] Loh, P. R. et al. Inferring admixture histories of human populations using linkage disequilibrium. Genetics 193, 1233–1254 (2013). sourceSupported
• cites [16] Henn, B. M. et al. Genomic ancestry of North Africans supports back-to-Africa migrations. PLoS Genet. 8, e1002397 (2012). sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

May combine two claims.

Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out by the formal test despite the sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with modern Ethiopians is not supported.

“Genetic continuity between ancient and modern Egyptians cannot be ruled out by our formal test despite this sub-Saharan African influx, while continuity with modern Ethiopians17, who carry >60% African L lineages, is not supported (Supplementary Data 5).”

• cites [17] Pagani, L. et al. Tracing the route of modern humans out of Africa by using 225 human genome sequences from Ethiopians and Egyptians. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 96, 986–991 (2015). sourceSupported

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

According to radiocarbon dates, the samples can be grouped into three time periods: Pre-Ptolemaic (New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and Late Period), Ptolemaic and Roman Period.

“According to the radiocarbon dates (Supplementary Data 1, see also ref. 18), the samples can be grouped into three time periods: Pre-Ptolemaic (New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period and Late Period), Ptolemaic and Roman Period.”

• cites [18] Lalremruata, A. et al. Molecular identification of falciparum malaria and human tuberculosis co-infections in mummies from the Fayum depression (Lower Egypt). PLoS ONE 8, e60307 (2013). sourcePartly supported

  Table 1 (Introduction; page unavailable) gives radiocarbon dates for mummies assigned to the Third Intermediate, Late, Ptolemaic and Roman periods. It does not date any of its samples to the New Kingdom or group samples into the three stated categories; the Materials and Methods instead describe this study’s samples as spanning the Third Intermediate to Roman periods. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Taken together with Greek papyri written at the site, the evidence strongly suggests that at least some inhabitants of Abusir el-Meleq were literate in, and able to speak, Greek.

“Taken together with the multitude of Greek papyri that were written at the site, this evidence strongly suggests that at least some inhabitants of Abusir el-Meleq were literate in, and able to speak, Greek45.”

• cites [45] Broux, Y. & Depauw, M. in Social Informatics (eds Aiello, L. M., McFarland, D.) 304–313 (Springer, 2015). sourceCould not verify

  The paper’s §2.3 discusses Demotic letters from Elephantine, not Greek papyri from Abusir el-Meleq. Searches for Abusir el-Meleq, Greek papyri written at the site, and Greek literacy or speech found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For the three samples with contamination estimates above 3%, visual inspection of sequence assemblies was done to identify potential contaminating lineages and ensure consistency of the consensus mitochondrial genome.

“except for three samples (JK2879, JK2883, JK2896) where a visual inspection of sequence assemblies was done as described in Posth et al.61 to identify potential contaminating lineages and ensure consistency of the generated consensus mitochondrial genome.”

• cites [61] Posth, C. et al. Pleistocene mitochondrial genomes suggest a single major dispersal of non-Africans and a late glacial population turnover in Europe. Curr. Biol. 26, 827–833 (2016). sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion (page not provided) describe an approach that estimates present-day human contamination while reconstructing mitochondrial sequences. Our copy does not describe visual inspection of sequence assemblies, identify three samples above 3% contamination, or say that inspection was used to check the consensus genome. The cited paper therefore supports the general contamination-and-reconstruction context, but not the specific procedure attributed to it. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The 90 mitochondrial genomes fulfilling criteria (>10-fold coverage and <3% contamination) were grouped into Pre-Ptolemaic (n=44), Ptolemaic (n=27) and Roman (n=19) temporal categories.

“The 90 mitochondrial genomes fulfilling our criteria (>10-fold coverage and <3% contamination) were grouped into three temporal categories based on their radiocarbon dates (Supplementary Data 1), corresponding to Pre-Ptolemaic Periods (n=44), the Ptolemaic Period (n=27) and the Roman Period (n=19) (Supplementary Data 1).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

May combine two claims.

Ancient Egyptians are most closely related to Neolithic and Bronze Age samples in the Levant, as well as to Neolithic Anatolian and European populations, by outgroup f3-statistics.

“We find that ancient Egyptians are most closely related to Neolithic and Bronze Age samples in the Levant, as well as to Neolithic Anatolian and European populations (Fig. 5a,b).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other relevant SNPs in sample JK2911 carry the ancestral allele, including HERC2 and LCT, suggesting dark-coloured eyes and lactose intolerance.

“Other relevant SNPs carry the ancestral allele, including HERC2 and LCT, which suggest dark-coloured eyes and lactose intolerance (Supplementary Table 9).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

May combine two claims.

Yields of preserved DNA were comparable in bone and teeth but up to ten times lower in soft tissues.

“Yields of preserved DNA were comparable in bone and teeth but up to ten times lower in soft tissues (Fig. 2a, Supplementary Table 1).”

May combine two claims.

In both PCA and ADMIXTURE analyses, no significant differences were found between the three ancient samples, despite two having nuclear contamination estimates over 5%, indicating no larger impact of modern DNA contamination.

“In both PCA and ADMIXTURE analyses, we did not find significant differences between the three ancient samples, despite two of them having nuclear contamination estimates over 5%, which indicates no larger impact of modern DNA contamination.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

May combine two claims.

The study obtained complete human mitochondrial genomes from 90 ancient Egyptian mummy samples and genome-wide SNP data from three male individuals passing quality control.

“we successfully obtained complete human mitochondrial genomes from 90 samples and genome-wide SNP data from three male individuals passing quality control.”

• Also stated in: § Abstract · plain

  “Here we present 90 mitochondrial genomes as well as genome-wide data sets from three individuals obtained from Egyptian mummies.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

May combine two claims.

The ancient Egyptian samples fall distinct from modern Egyptians and closer towards Near Eastern and European samples in PCA.

“We found the ancient Egyptian samples falling distinct from modern Egyptians, and closer towards Near Eastern and European samples (Fig. 4a, Supplementary Fig. 3, Supplementary Table 5).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

May combine two claims.

Nuclear DNA showed poor preservation compared to mtDNA, with a high mitochondrial/nuclear DNA ratio of on average around 18,000.

“Overall, the nuclear DNA showed poor preservation compared to the mtDNA as depicted by a high mitochondrial/nuclear DNA ratio of on average around 18,000.”

May combine two claims.

Three out of 40 samples fulfilling strict criteria had acceptable nuclear contamination rates: two Pre-Ptolemaic samples had 5.3 and 0.5% nuclear contamination and yielded 132,084 and 508,360 SNPs, respectively, and one Ptolemaic sample had 7.3% contamination and yielded 201,967 SNPs.

“Three out of 40 samples fulfilling these criteria had acceptable nuclear contamination rates: Two samples from the Pre-Ptolemaic Periods (New Kingdom to Late Period) had 5.3 and 0.5% nuclear contamination and yielded 132,084 and 508,360 SNPs, respectively, and one sample from the Ptolemaic Period had 7.3% contamination and yielded 201,967 SNPs.”

May combine two claims.

All three ancient Egyptian groups cluster together in PCA and Multidimensional Scaling, supporting genetic continuity across the 1,300-year transect.

“We find that all three ancient Egyptian groups cluster together (Fig. 3b), supporting genetic continuity across our 1,300-year transect.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

May combine two claims.

The three ancient groups have highly similar haplogroup profiles, supported by low FST values (<0.05) and P values >0.1 for the continuity test.

“We observe highly similar haplogroup profiles between the three ancient groups (Fig. 3a), supported by low FST values (<0.05) and P values >0.1 for the continuity test.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The 90 mitochondrial genomes are representative of the Abusir el-Meleq population in each time period.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most of the individuals are early and late adults, and subadult individuals are underrepresented.

“It is notable that most of the individuals are early and late adults, and that subadult individuals are underrepresented (Supplementary Data 1).”

May combine two claims.

The Y-chromosome haplogroups of the three genome-wide individuals support affinity to the Middle East: two were assigned to Middle-Eastern haplogroup J, and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 common in North Africa.

“The affinity to the Middle East finds further support by the Y-chromosome haplogroups of the three individuals for which genome-wide data was obtained, two of which could be assigned to the Middle-Eastern haplogroup J, and one to haplogroup E1b1b1 common in North Africa (Supplementary Table 3).”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The three individuals with genome-wide data are representative of the ancient Egyptian populations from their respective periods.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Assuming a generation time of 29 years and equal male and female effective population size, the population size estimate rescales to 112,082 individuals (95% HPD 47,839-309,705).

“which assuming generation time of 29 years and equal male and female effective population size rescales to 112,082 (95% HPD 47,839–309,705) individuals”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Generation time of 29 years and equal male and female effective population size.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

For JK2134, there was no sufficient coverage after quality filtering at all the specific sites, so the analysis revealed no further clues.

“For JK2134, there was no sufficient coverage after quality filtering at all the specific sites, which is why the analysis revealed no further clues.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mitochondrial genome coverages ranged from 11-fold to 4284-fold, with an average of 408-fold.

“we achieved coverages ranging from 11-fold up to 4284-fold on the mitochondrial genome, with an average of 408-fold.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Bayesian SkyGrid plot indicates a fairly stable, slightly decreasing effective population size for the studied population over the last 5,000 years.

“The obtained Bayesian SkyGrid plot indicates a fairly stable slightly decreasing effective population size for the studied population over the last 5,000 years (Fig. 3d and Supplementary Fig. 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Derived alleles for the gene SLC24A5 were present in both JK2888 and JK2911.

“Our analysis furthermore shows that derived alleles for the genes SLC24A5, known to be responsible for partially lighter skin pigmentation were present in both JK2888 and JK2911”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The average median population size over the sampled ancient period, expressed as female effective population size times generation time, was estimated to 1,625,187 (95% HPD 693,670-4,490,725).

“The average median population size over the sampled ancient period, expressed as female effective population size times generation time, was estimated to 1,625,187 (95% HPD 693,670–4,490,725)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No derived alleles were found for the genes SLC45A2, LCT and EDAR in both JK2888 and JK2911.

“For further genes such as SLC45A2, LCT and EDAR we were unable to find derived alleles for both JK2888 and JK2911.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

By the third century BCE Abusir el-Meleq was at the centre of a wider region comprising the northern part of the Herakleopolites province and had close ties with the Fayum and the Memphite provinces.

“Written sources indicate that by the third century BCE Abusir el-Meleq was at the centre of a wider region that comprised the northern part of the Herakleopolites province, and had close ties with the Fayum and the Memphite provinces, involving the transport of wheat, cattle-breeding, bee-keeping and quarrying42.”

• cites [42] Falivene, M. R. The Herakleopolite Nome: a Catalogue of Toponyms with Introduction and Commentary Scholars Press (1998). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

All genetic data were obtained from a single site in Middle Egypt and may not be representative for all of ancient Egypt.

“However, we note that all our genetic data were obtained from a single site in Middle Egypt and may not be representative for all of ancient Egypt.”

May combine two claims.

Replication using only the least contaminated sample (<1% contamination) gave very similar f3-statistics results, confirming that moderate modern DNA contamination in two samples did not affect the analyses.

“We replicated the results based on f3-statistics using only the least contaminated sample (with <1% contamination estimate) and find very similar results (Supplementary Fig. 5), confirming that the moderate levels of modern DNA contamination in two of our samples did not affect our analyses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Abusir el-Meleq was inhabited from at least 3250BCE until about 700CE and was of great religious significance because of its active cult to Osiris, the god of the dead, which made it an attractive burial site for centuries.

“The archaeological site Abusir el-Meleq was inhabited from at least 3250BCE until about 700CE and was of great religious significance because of its active cult to Osiris, the god of the dead, which made it an attractive burial site for centuries2.”

• cites [2] Riggs, C. The Beautiful Burial in Roman Egypt: Art, Identity, and Funerary Religion Oxford University Press (2005). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No inconsistencies were found between mitochondrial and nuclear haplogroup assignments.

“We furthermore determined whether there are inconsistencies between our haplogroup assignments of the mitochondrial and the nuclear capture respectively, but did not find any”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lowest cross-validation error in ADMIXTURE was obtained using K=16.

“The lowest cross-validation error was obtained using K=16 and we show the results of that run in Supplementary Fig. 4.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Under Ptolemaic and Roman rule, ethnic descent was crucial to belonging to an elite group and afforded a privileged position in society.

“Under Ptolemaic and Roman rule, ethnic descent was crucial to belonging to an elite group and afforded a privileged position in society55.”

• cites [55] Vandorpe, K. Idnetity in Roman Egypt, 260–276 (Oxford University Press, 2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All samples except three (JK2879, JK2883, JK2896) had contamination estimates less than the defined threshold of 3%.

“For all samples, the observed contamination estimates prove to be less than our defined threshold of 3%, except for three samples (JK2879, JK2883, JK2896)”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Throughout Pharaonic history there was intense interaction between Egypt and Nubia, ranging from trade to conquest and colonialism, and there is compelling evidence for ethnic complexity within households with Egyptian men marrying Nubian women and vice versa.

“Throughout Pharaonic history there was intense interaction between Egypt and Nubia, ranging from trade to conquest and colonialism, and there is compelling evidence for ethnic complexity within households with Egyptian men marrying Nubian women and vice versa515253.”

• cites [51] Smith, S. T. in Nubia in the New Kingdom: Lived experience, pharaonic control and local traditions (eds Spencer, N., Stevens, A. & Binder M.) 613–628.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [52] Smith, S. T. Wretched Kush: Ethnic Identities and Boundaries in Egypt’s Nubian Empire Routledge (2003). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [53] Van Pelt, W. P. Revising Egypto-Nubian relations in New Kingdom Lower Nubia: From Egyptianization to cultural entanglement. Cambridge Archaeol. J. 23, 523–550 (2013). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Only samples with less than 3% estimated contamination based on deamination and degree of mitochondrial contamination were used for further downstream analysis.

“only samples with less than 3% estimated contamination based on deamination and degree of mitochondrial contamination have been used for further downstream analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the Roman Period, many Roman army veterans settled in the Fayum area and intermarried with local populations.

“Later, in the Roman Period, many veterans of the Roman army—who, initially at least, were not Egyptian but people from disparate cultural backgrounds—settled in the Fayum area after the completion of their service, and formed social relations and intermarried with local populations44.”

• cites [44] Alston, R. Soldier and Society in Roman Egypt: A Social History New York (1995). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of context greatly diminishes the possibility of 'thick description' of the analysed individuals, at least in terms of their names, titles and materially expressed identity.

“This lack of context greatly diminishes the possibility of ‘thick description' of the analysed individuals, at least in terms of their names, titles and materially expressed identity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Especially in the Roman Period there may have been significant legal and social incentives to marry within one's ethnic group, as individuals with Roman citizenship had to marry other Roman citizens to pass on their citizenship.

“Especially in the Roman Period there may have been significant legal and social incentives to marry within one's ethnic group, as individuals with Roman citizenship had to marry other Roman citizens to pass on their citizenship.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Connections between Egypt and the Middle East date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, immigration, invasion and deportation.

“These connections date back to Prehistory and occurred at a variety of scales, including overland and maritime commerce, diplomacy, immigration, invasion and deportation54.”

• cites [54] Mumford, G. D. Egypt and the Levant, The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE Oxford (2014).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Effective sample size for all parameters exceeded 100.

“Effective sample size for all parameters exceeded 100.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Filtering with q=20 preserved haplotyping calls; even stricter filtering with q=40 preserved haplotyping calls to be consistent.

“We ultimately chose a value of q=20 for filtering with ‘log2fasta', but even more strict filtering with q=40 preserved our haplotyping calls to be consistent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Especially from the second millennium BCE onwards, there were intense, historically and archaeologically documented contacts, including large-scale immigration of Canaanite populations known as the Hyksos into Lower Egypt.

“Especially from the second millennium BCE onwards, there were intense, historically- and archaeologically documented contacts, including the large-scale immigration of Canaanite populations, known as the Hyksos, into Lower Egypt, whose origins lie in the Middle Bronze Age Levant54.”

• cites [54] Mumford, G. D. Egypt and the Levant, The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of the Levant: c. 8000-332 BCE Oxford (2014).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

All of the material was excavated by Rubensohn in the early twentieth century, whose main interest was to obtain literary papyri from cartonnage rather than to excavate human remains.

“All of the material was excavated by Rubensohn in the early twentieth century, whose main interest was to obtain literary papyri from cartonnage rather than to excavate human remains47.”

• cites [47] Rubensohn, O. & Knatz, F. Berichte über die Ausgrabungen bei Abusir el Mäläq im Jahre 1903. Leipzig: Z. Ägypt. Sprache Alt. Bd. 41, 1–21 (1904). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Three samples selected for downstream analysis (JK2134, JK2888, JK2911) had acceptable contamination estimates, similar in both UDG and non-UDG libraries.

“Three samples were selected for down-stream analysis: JK2134, JK2888 and JK2911. In all three of these samples, contamination estimates were acceptable, and similar in both UDG and non-UDG libraries”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several details of the context of the individuals analysed in this study were lost over time.

“However, a general issue concerning the site is that several details of the context of the individuals analysed in this study were lost over time.”

May combine two claims.

Repeating the f3-statistics analysis using only sample JK2911 (highest SNP coverage, contamination below 1%) gave very similar results as using all three samples, indicating no effect of contamination on the results.

“Since two of the three selected samples had contamination rate estimates over 5%, we repeated this analysis using only sample JK2911, which has the highest SNP coverage and a contamination estimate of below 1%. The result is shown in Supplementary Fig. 5, with very similar results as when using all three samples, indicating no effect of contamination on our results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The Fayum saw substantial population growth during the first hundred years of Ptolemaic rule, presumably as a result of Greek immigration.

“Abusir el-Meleq's proximity to, and close ties with, the Fayum are significant in the context of this study as the Fayum in particular saw a substantial growth in its population during the first hundred years of Ptolemaic rule, presumably as a result of Greek immigration3343.”

• cites [33] Clarysse, W. & Thompson, D. J. Counting the people in Hellenistic Egypt Cambridge University Press (2004).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [43] Rathbone, D. W. Villages, land and population in Graeco-Roman Egypt. Proc. Cambridge Philolog. Soc. 36, 103–142 (1990). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Widespread mummification treatments in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods led to a decline in standards and costs, and the generally modest appearance of many burials further supports the assessment of a complete social spectrum.

“The widespread mummification treatments in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods in particular, leading to a decline in standards and costs48 and the generally modest appearance of many burials further supports this assessment.”

• cites [48] David, R. in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (eds Nicholson, P. T., Shaw, I.) 372–389 (Cambridge, 2000).Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In the early Roman Period, Abusir el-Meleq appears to have been the main centre in its own district.

“In the early Roman Period, the site appears to have been the main centre in its own district42.”

• cites [42] Falivene, M. R. The Herakleopolite Nome: a Catalogue of Toponyms with Introduction and Commentary Scholars Press (1998). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Samples showed damage on both 3′ and 5′ ends of reads in the range of 5% to 49%, with an average of 14%.

“our samples showed damage on both 3′ and 5′ ends of reads in the range of 5% up to 49%, with an average of 14%.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Abusir el-Meleq is one of the few sites in Egypt for which such a vast number of individuals with such an extensive chronological spread are available for ancient DNA analysis.

“Abusir el-Meleq is arguably one of the few sites in Egypt, for which such a vast number of individuals with such an extensive chronological spread are available for ancient DNA analysis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Many of Rubensohn's excavation diaries and notes were destroyed during the Second World War.

“Furthermore, many of his excavation diaries and notes were destroyed during the Second World War19.”

• cites [19] Welte, B. Zeitzeugen aus dem Wüstensand- die altägyptischen Mumienschädel aus Abusir el-Meleg Dissertation. BioArchaeologica no. 6, Marie-Leidorf Verlag (2016). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In all three selected samples, the non-UDG library showed DNA damage over 8% in the first base pair of reads, within the expected range for ancient DNA of this age.

“Furthermore, in all three samples the non-UDG library showed DNA damage over 8% in the first base pair of reads, which is within the expected range of damage for ancient DNA of this age.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Rubensohn's archaeological records are highly incomplete and many of the finds made by him were removed undocumented from their contexts.

“As is customary for the time, Rubensohn's archaeological records are highly incomplete and many of the finds made by him were removed undocumented from their contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Such policies are likely to have affected the intermarriage of Romans and non-Romans to a degree.

“Such policies are likely to have affected the intermarriage of Romans and non-Romans to a degree55.”

• cites [55] Vandorpe, K. Idnetity in Roman Egypt, 260–276 (Oxford University Press, 2012). sourceNot checked — no full text of the source