Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We generated genome-wide data from 69 Europeans who lived between 8,000-3,000 years ago by enriching ancient DNA libraries for a target set of almost 400,000 polymorphisms. Enrichment of these positions decreases the sequencing required for genome-wide ancient DNA analysis by a median of around 250-fold, allowing us to study an order of magnitude more individuals than previous studies and to obtain new insights about the past. We show that the populations of Western and Far Eastern Europe followed opposite trajectories between 8,000-5,000 years ago. At the beginning of the Neolithic period in Europe, ∼8,000-7,000 years ago, closely related groups of early farmers appeared in Germany, Hungary and Spain, different from indigenous hunter-gatherers, whereas Russia was inhabited by a distinctive population of hunter-gatherers with high affinity to a ∼24,000-year-old Siberian. By ∼6,000-5,000 years ago, farmers throughout much of Europe had more hunter-gatherer ancestry than their predecessors, but in Russia, the Yamnaya steppe herders of this time were descended not only from the preceding eastern European hunter-gatherers, but also from a population of Near Eastern ancestry. Western and Eastern Europe came into contact ∼4,500 years ago, as the Late Neolithic Corded Ware people from Germany traced ∼75% of their ancestry to the Yamnaya, documenting a massive migration into the heartland of Europe from its eastern periphery. This steppe ancestry persisted in all sampled central Europeans until at least ∼3,000 years ago, and is ubiquitous in present-day Europeans. These results provide support for a steppe origin of at least some of the Indo-European languages of Europe.
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The dataset combines the newly reported ancient individuals with previously published ancient data to form a dataset of 281 ancient individuals.
“We combined our data with previously published ancient data7,8,9,10,8,10-15 to form a dataset of 281 ancient individuals.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The Abstract (page not available) says the authors combined their data with previously published ancient samples, supporting that part of the claim. It reports a total of 94 ancient Europeans, not 281 ancient individuals. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDiverse ancient West Eurasians can be modelled as mixtures of as few as four streams of ancestry related to Western Hunter Gatherers, Eastern Hunter Gatherers, Neolithic Levant/Natufians, and Neolithic Iran.
“This suggests the hypothesis that diverse ancient West Eurasians can be modelled as mixtures of as few as four streams of ancestry related to these populations, which we confirmed using qpWave7 (Supplementary Information, section 7).”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The paper’s main text (page unavailable in our copy) describes WHG- and EHG-related ancestry and models Yamnaya as a mixture of EHG and a Near Eastern-related population. It does not establish the proposed four streams, identify Neolithic Levant/Natufian and Neolithic Iran as sources, or model diverse ancient West Eurasians in those terms. The citing authors’ statement that they confirmed the hypothesis with qpWave is their own result, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPCA on present-day West Eurasian populations replicates previous findings of a Europe-Near East contrast along the horizontal Principal Component 1 (PC1) and parallel clines (PC2) in both Europe and the Near East.
“PCA on present-day West Eurasian populations (Methods) (Extended Data Fig. 1) on which we projected the ancient individuals (Fig. 1b) replicates previous findings of a Europe-Near East contrast along the horizontal Principal Component 1 (PC1) and parallel clines (PC2) in both Europe and the Near East (Extended Data Fig. 1)7,8,13.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The paper's PCA discussion (page unavailable) says that an analysis including 777 present-day West Eurasians replicates the positioning of present-day Europeans relative to the Near East, supporting the broad geographic contrast. It does not describe that contrast as horizontal PC1 or report parallel PC2 clines in Europe and the Near East. The Online Methods (page unavailable) confirm that ancient samples were projected onto a PCA using present-day West Eurasians. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial: the Mala are inferred to have ~18% steppe-related ancestry, while the Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have ~50%, similar to present-day northern Europeans.
“The demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial, as the Mala, a south Indian population with minimal ANI along the ‘Indian Cline’ of such ancestry34,35 is inferred to have ~18% steppe-related ancestry, while the Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have ~50%, similar to present-day northern Europeans7.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredScandinavian hunter-gatherers (SHG) are a mix of EHG and WHG.
“Scandinavian hunter-gatherers7,8,13 (SHG) are a mix of EHG and WHG;”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The passage labeled Abstract (page not provided) places Swedish hunter-gatherers (SHG) between EHG and WHG on a hunter-gatherer genetic cline. It does not establish that SHG are a mixture of those two groups; the paper elsewhere notes that an intermediate genetic position need not imply a particular mixture model. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Sidon_BA can be modeled as a mixture of Levant_N (48.4% ± 4.2%) and Iran_ChL (51.6% ± 4.2%).
“We then used qpAdm8 (with parameter allsnps: YES) to test whether Sidon_BA can be modeled as mixture of Levant_N and any other ancient population in the dataset and found good support for the model of Sidon_BA being a mixture of Levant_N (48.4% ± 4.2%) and Iran_ChL (51.6% ± 4.2%) (Figure 2B; Table S3).”
From Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences (2017) · cites this paper as [8]
During the Bronze Age, pastoralist populations from Eurasian steppes spread.
“This includes the European Neolithic transition, when farmers coming from southeast Europe and Anatolia partially replaced hunter-gatherers (32–35), as well as the Bronze Age, with the spread of pastoralist populations from Eurasian steppes (36–38).”
From Past human expansions shaped the spatial pattern of Neanderthal ancestry (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
The spread of Near Eastern ancestry into the Eurasian steppe was previously inferred without access to ancient samples, by hypothesizing a population related to present-day Armenians as a source.
“The spread of Near Eastern ancestry into the Eurasian steppe was previously inferred7 without access to ancient samples, by hypothesizing a population related to present-day Armenians as a source7,8.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
qpAdm and the f4-ratio test reveal that modern Egyptians inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors than the three ancient Egyptians do.
“Both qpAdm35 and the f4-ratio test39 reveal that modern Egyptians inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors than the three ancient Egyptians do, which is also consistent with the ADMIXTURE results discussed above.”
From Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods (2017) · cites this paper as [35]
qpAdm estimates of Basal Eurasian ancestry are highest in the earliest populations from Iran (66±13% in the likely Mesolithic sample, 48±6% in Neolithic samples) and the Levant (44±8% in Epipaleolithic Natufians).
“We obtain the highest estimates in the earliest populations from both Iran (66±13% in the likely Mesolithic sample, 48±6% in Neolithic samples), and the Levant (44±8% in Epipaleolithic Natufians) (Fig. 2), showing that Basal Eurasian ancestry was widespread across the ancient Near East.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The Abstract discusses Near Eastern-related ancestry in the Yamnaya, and Extended Data Table 1 lists the study's ancient samples. Neither gives qpAdm estimates of Basal Eurasian ancestry for Iran or Natufians. Searches for those populations, the quoted percentages, and “Basal Eurasian” found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredY chromosome analysis shows that the Natufians and successor Levantine Neolithic populations carried haplogroup E, of likely ultimate African origin, which has not been detected in other ancient males from West Eurasia.
“a result that finds some support from Y chromosome analysis which shows that the Natufians and successor Levantine Neolithic populations carried haplogroup E, of likely ultimate African origin, which has not been detected in other ancient males from West Eurasia (Supplementary Information, section 6) 7,8.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The indexed paper’s Y-chromosome passage (labelled Abstract; page unavailable) reports haplogroups R1a and R1b in ancient European males, not haplogroup E in Natufians or Levantine Neolithic populations. Searches for Natufians, haplogroup E, African origin, and ancient West Eurasian males found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe Chalcolithic people of western Iran can be modelled as a mixture of the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG).
“The Chalcolithic people of western Iran can be modelled as a mixture of the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers (CHG), consistent with their position in the PCA (Fig. 1b).”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [7]
The passages labeled Abstract model Yamnaya and European populations, while Extended Data Table 1 lists the study’s ancient samples; neither addresses Chalcolithic people of western Iran. Searches for western Iran, Chalcolithic ancestry, and the proposed Neolithic Iranian–Levantine–CHG mixture found no passage supporting or contradicting the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe arrival of the first farmers during the Early Neolithic from the Near East was followed by a massive migration from the Eurasian Steppe ~4500 ya involving people from the Yamnaya culture.
“The refined model shows that the arrival of the first farmers during the Early Neolithic from the Near East was followed by a massive migration from the Eurasian Steppe ~4500 ya involving people from the Yamnaya culture [31].”
From Ancient DNA and the rewriting of human history: be sparing with Occam’s razor (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
The genetic impact of the Yamnaya migration is illustrated by the transition in European Y-chromosomal haplogroups from a predominance of G2a beforehand to R1a and R1b afterwards.
“The genetic impact of the Yamnaya migration is strikingly illustrated by the transition in European Y-chromosomal haplogroups from a predominance of G2a beforehand to R1a and R1b afterwards [31]”
From Ancient DNA and the rewriting of human history: be sparing with Occam’s razor (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
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- [33]Rohland N Harney E Mallick S Nordenfelt S Reich D Partial uracil–DNA–glycosylase treatment for screening of ancient DNA Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 370 10.1098/rstb.2013.0624 2014 PMC4275898 25487342 · DOI · Paper page
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Self-citationEmergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of Yersinia pestis during the Neolithic Decline
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Haak, W., Lazaridis, I., Patterson, N., Rohland, N., Mallick, S., Llamas, B., Brandt, G., Nordenfelt, S., Harney, E., Stewardson, K., Fu, Q., Mittnik, A., Bánffy, E., Economou, C., Francken, M., Friederich, S., Pena, R. G., Hallgren, F., Khartanovich, V., Khokhlov, A., Kunst, M., Kuznetsov, P., Meller, H., Mochalov, O., Moiseyev, V., Nicklisch, N., Pichler, S. L., Risch, R., Rojo Guerra, M. A., Roth, C., Szécsényi-Nagy, A., Wahl, J., Meyer, M., Krause, J., Brown, D., Anthony, D., Cooper, A., Alt, K. W., & Reich, D.
- Affiliations
- The University of Adelaide (AU)
- Broad Institute (US)
- Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (DE)
- University of Tübingen (DE)
- ELTE Research Centre for the Humanities (HU)
- Stockholm University (SE)
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment (DE)
- Deutsches Archäologisches Institut, Abteilung Madrid (ES)
- Peter the Great's Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (RU)
- Danube Private University (AT)
- University of Basel (CH)
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (ES)
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (DE)
- Hartwick College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Reich, David
- ORCID
- Haak, Wolfgang
- Lazaridis, Iosif
- Patterson, Nick
- Rohland, Nadin
- Mallick, Swapan
- Llamas, Bastien
- Brandt, Guido
- Fu, Qiaomei
- Mittnik, Alissa
- Bánffy, Eszter
- Francken, Michael
- Friederich, Susanne
- Hallgren, Fredrik
- Khokhlov, Aleksandr
- Kunst, Michael
- Kuznetsov, Pavel
- Meller, Harald
- Nicklisch, Nicole
- Pichler, Sandra L.
- Risch, Roberto
- Roth, Christina
- Wahl, Joachim
- Meyer, Matthias
- Krause, Johannes
- Brown, Dorcas
- Anthony, David
- Cooper, Alan
- Alt, Kurt Werner
- Reich, David
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2015-03-02
- Volume
- 522
- Issue
- 7555
- Pages
- 207-211
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC5048219
- OpenAlex
- W2050876420
- Cited by
- 1,940
- References
- 85
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 201 · 2024: 175 · 2023: 173 · 2022: 191 · 2021: 186 · 2020: 203 · 2019: 223 · 2018: 153 · 2017: 161 · 2016: 111 · 2015: 41 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 106.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- ANU Open Research (Australian National University) (submittedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1032255)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Al 287/10-1, 287/7-1, Al 287-7-1, /14-1, Me 3245/1-1)
- National Institutes of Health
- Australian Research Council (DP130102158)
- National Human Genome Research Institute (R01HG006399)
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM100233, R01GM100233)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and language evolution
- Keywords
- Indo-European origins, Eurasian steppe, ancient DNA, early farmers, hunter-gatherers, Bronze Age, population admixture, genetic ancestry, target enrichment sequencing, European prehistory, origin of language, Y-chromosome haplogroups, mtDNA haplogroups, Bronze Age collapse
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Evolution, Europe, Humans, Language, Male, Polymorphism, Genetic, Population Dynamics, Russia, Genome, Human, History, Ancient, Human Migration, Grassland
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