Ancient Admixture in Human History
Open accessAbstract
Population mixture is an important process in biology. We present a suite of methods for learning about population mixtures, implemented in a software package called ADMIXTOOLS, that support formal tests for whether mixture occurred and make it possible to infer proportions and dates of mixture. We also describe the development of a new single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) array consisting of 629,433 sites with clearly documented ascertainment that was specifically designed for population genetic analyses and that we genotyped in 934 individuals from 53 diverse populations. To illustrate the methods, we give a number of examples that provide new insights about the history of human admixture. The most striking finding is a clear signal of admixture into northern Europe, with one ancestral population related to present-day Basques and Sardinians and the other related to present-day populations of northeast Asia and the Americas. This likely reflects a history of admixture between Neolithic migrants and the indigenous Mesolithic population of Europe, consistent with recent analyses of ancient bones from Sweden and the sequencing of the genome of the Tyrolean “Iceman.”
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Sidon_BA shared more alleles with the Lebanese than with most other present-day Levantines.
“We explored this further by computing the statistic f4(Lebanese, present-day Near Easterner; Sidon_BA, Chimpanzee) using qpDstat39 (with parameter f4mode: YES) and found that Sidon_BA shared more alleles with the Lebanese than with most other present-day Levantines (Figure S7), supporting local population continuity as observed in Sidon’s archaeological records.”
From Continuity and Admixture in the Last Five Millennia of Levantine History from Ancient Canaanite and Present-Day Lebanese Genome Sequences (2017) · cites this paper as [39]
The dataset further merges with 2,583 present-day people genotyped on the Affymetrix Human Origins array, including 238 new individuals.
“We then further merged with 2,583 present-day people genotyped on the Affymetrix Human Origins array13,16 (238 new) (Supplementary Data Table 2; Supplementary Information, section 2).”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
Almost all ancient and present-day West Eurasians have evidence of significant admixture between two or more ancestral populations, as documented by negative f3(Test; Reference1, Reference2) statistics.
“Almost all ancient and present-day West Eurasians have evidence of significant admixture between two or more ancestral populations, as documented by statistics of the form f3(Test; Reference1, Reference2) which if negative, show that a Test population's allele frequencies tend to be intermediate between two Reference populations16 (Extended Data Table 2).”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
The study genotyped 238 present-day individuals from 17 diverse West Eurasian populations on the Affymetrix Human Origins array and applied quality control analyses as previously described.
“We genotyped 238 present-day individuals from 17 diverse West Eurasian populations on the Affymetrix Human Origins array16, and applied quality control analyses as previously described13 (Supplementary Data Table 2).”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [16]
qpAdm and the f4-ratio test reveal that modern Egyptians inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors than the three ancient Egyptians do.
“Both qpAdm35 and the f4-ratio test39 reveal that modern Egyptians inherit 8% more ancestry from African ancestors than the three ancient Egyptians do, which is also consistent with the ADMIXTURE results discussed above.”
From Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods (2017) · cites this paper as [39]
Our estimates of low levels of African ancestry in European Americans are not the result of Ancestry Composition errors or biases, as validated by comparison to f4 statistics, 1000 Genomes Project consensus estimates, and ADMIXTURE estimates.
“To show that our estimates are not the result of Ancestry Composition errors or biases, we validated the estimates of low levels of African ancestry in European Americans comparing to f4 statistics,64 1000 Genomes Project consensus estimates,78 and ADMIXTURE estimates.66”
From The genetic ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States (2015) · cites this paper as [64]
Admixture tests via ADMIXTOOLS confirm significant signals of African admixture in European Americans.
“Admixture tests via an independent admixture software package, ADMIXTOOLS,64 confirm significant signals of African admixture in European Americans (Table S7).”
From The genetic ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States (2015) · cites this paper as [64]
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Philippine Ayta possess the highest level of Denisovan ancestry in the world
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The Genomic History of the Bronze Age Southern Levant
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Population history and gene divergence in native Mexicans inferred from 76 human exomes
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Genetic Ancestry of Rapanui before and after European Contact
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Inference of Admixture Origins in Indigenous African Cattle
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InfluentialGenomic Insights into the Population History and Adaptive Traits of Latin American Criollo Cattle
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Genomic Analyses Unveil Helmeted Guinea Fowl (<i>Numida meleagris</i>) Domestication in West Africa
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No evidence for unknown archaic ancestry in South Asia
Skoglund, P., Mallick, S., Patterson, N., & Reich, D. (2018) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-018-0097-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationMoreno-Mayar, J. V. (2022) · G3 Genes|Genomes|Genetics · doi:10.1093/g3journal/jkab357 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Message in a bottleneck: Nested founder effects from French Polynesia to Rapa Nui and Hawaiʻi
Shanks, C., Huang, E. C., Thomassin, C., Emde, A.-K., Rodière, V., Moraga, M., Sandoval, K., Merriman, T., Pascart, T., Moreno-Estrada, A., et al. (2026) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aec7662
- Authors
- Patterson, N., Moorjani, P., Luo, Y., Mallick, S., Rohland, N., Zhan, Y., Genschoreck, T., Webster, T., & Reich, D.
- Affiliations
- Broad Institute (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- Affymetrix (United States) (US)
- Corresponding author
- Patterson, Nick
- Venue
- Genetics
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-11-01
- Volume
- 192
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 1065-1093
- ISSN
- 0016-6731 (ISSN-L)
- 1943-2631
- PMC
- PMC3522152
- OpenAlex
- W2166214412
- Cited by
- 2,848
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 263 · 2025: 378 · 2024: 349 · 2023: 289 · 2022: 283 · 2021: 330 · 2020: 223 · 2019: 172 · 2018: 169 · 2017: 127 · 2016: 92 · 2015: 82 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 32.28
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Genetics (publishedVersion, public-domain)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1032255)
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM100233, R01GM100233)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Race, Genetics, and Society
- Keywords
- human admixture, admixture proportions, SNP array, population structure, Neolithic migration, Basques, Sardinians, Iceman, ancient DNA, Northern Europe
- MeSH terms
- Algorithms, Ethnicity, Genetics, Population, Humans, Hybridization, Genetic, Models, Genetic, Software, Evolution, Molecular, Internet, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Racial Groups, Gene Flow
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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