The DOI matches its Crossref record; 53 of the 53 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Affect, Not Ideology
Abstract
The current debate over the extent of polarization in the American mass public focuses on the extent to which partisans’ policy preferences have moved. Whereas “maximalists” claim that partisans’ views on policies have become more extreme over time (Abramowitz 2010), “minimalists” (Fiorina and Abrams 2009) contend that the majority of Americans remain centrist, and that what little centrifugal movement has occurred reflects sorting, i.e., the increased association between partisanship and ideology. We argue in favor of an alternative definition of polarization, based on the classic concept of social distance (Bogardus 1947). Using data from a variety of sources, we demonstrate that both Republicans and Democrats increasingly dislike, even loathe, their opponents. We also find that partisan affect is inconsistently (and perhaps artifactually) founded in policy attitudes. The more plausible account lies in the nature of political campaigns; exposure to messages attacking the out-group reinforces partisans’ biased views of their opponents.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These observational approaches raise a critical inferential challenge, as they do not allow researchers to separate the impact of obtaining factual knowledge from the effect of other variables that are typically correlated with both domain-specific political knowledge and attitude polarization, such as the intensity of one’s political group identity11, one’s pre-existing factual beliefs21, or one’”
From Factual knowledge can reduce attitude polarization (2025) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“A growing body of evidence shows that affective polarization is indeed on the rise in the United States.”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Available research shows that US voters’ evaluation of their own parties and candidates is stable, yet they have come to dislike their opponents more over time (Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012, p. 413; Abramowitz and Webster 2016, p. 15; Finkel et al. 2020, p. 534).”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Available research shows that US voters’ evaluation of their own parties and candidates is stable, yet they have come to dislike their opponents more over time (Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012, p. 413; Abramowitz and Webster 2016, p. 15; Finkel et al. 2020, p. 534).”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“This development appears to be driven by voters’ tendency to increasingly dislike parties and candidates they do not support.”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Second, selective exposure to like-minded information would also likely result in affective polarizationa process of opinion formation in which individuals develop diverging evaluations of attitude objects (e.g., in-group vs. out-group candidates) in a partisan context (Abramowitz & Webster, 2016;Iyengar et al., 2012;Levendusky, 2018).”
From Do Search Algorithms Endanger Democracy? An Experimental Investigation of Algorithm Effects on Political Polarization (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Recent work on public opinion suggests that there is an increasing tendency that people, especially partisans, defend the in-group and dislike the out-group (Iyengar et al., 2012;Levendusky, 2018).”
From Do Search Algorithms Endanger Democracy? An Experimental Investigation of Algorithm Effects on Political Polarization (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“it may boost accountability and decrease corruption but can also contribute to the aforementioned harmful forms of polarization”
From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Firstly, ideological polarization of political parties was shown to increase partisanship (Iyengar et al., 2012;Lupu, 2015)”
From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“De acuerdo a nuestra búsqueda, Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012) son los primeros autores en acuñar el término”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012)
In the citing paper
“Varios investigadores en ciencia política sostienen que la polarización afectiva refleja ese proceso en un estado de hiperactividad (Garrett et al., 2014;Iyengar et al., 2012;Van Babel y Pereira, 2018).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Utilizando esta medida, Iyengar et al. (2012) muestran como la polarización en EEUU ha ido creciendo sostenidamente en las últimas décadas.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En su trabajo pionero realizado a partir de datos de encuestas en series de tiempo, Iyengar et al. (2012) mostraron que la creciente hostilidad entre los líderes demócratas y republicanos a partir de campañas agresivas contribuyó a la polarización afectiva en EEUU en las últimas décadas, medida a partir de cambios en la distancia social tolerada y el nivel de cercanía afectiva.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Esto se debe a que el grado de afecto hacia el partido opositor es cada vez más bajo.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En la última década, la literatura en ciencia política ha introducido un nuevo concepto denominado "polarización afectiva" para caracterizar una forma de polarización política en la que predominan actitudes de favoritismo por el propio grupo y desprecio hacia el grupo rival.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“No obstante, cuando el análisis se restringe a esos dos términos, el resultado persiste.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En contraste, el grado de afecto hacia el partido propio se ha mantenido relativamente estable a lo largo de las últimas décadas.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En 1960, sólo al 4-5% le resultaba molesto que su hijo se case con alguien del partido opuesto, mientras que para 2010 esa cifra saltó al 33% en los demócratas y al 50% en los republicanos (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“En su estudio pionero, Iyengar y colaboradores (2012) muestran que los americanos expresan cada vez más negatividad ante la perspectiva de que su hijo se case con alguien del partido contrario.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Por ejemplo, Iyengar et al. (2012) compararon dos encuestas del tipo mencionado, una realizada en 1960 y otra en 2008 en EEUU, y encuentran que el sesgo in-group de adscribir más rasgos positivos hacia los del propio partido y el sesgo out-group de asignar más rasgos negativos a los miembros del partido rival crecieron exponencialmente de un período al otro.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Aunque Iyengar y colaboradores no reportan el resultado de la correlación, sí muestran que mientras la polarización afectiva es creciente con el paso del tiempo, la polarización ideológica es estable.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Particularmente, es claro que los investigadores del área pretenden distinguir la polarización afectiva (o actitudinal) de la polarización ideológica (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“La polarización política implica el dominio de la identidad partidaria/ideológica sobre otras formas de identificación y acción política (Iyengar et al,2012)”
From ¿Es válido atribuir la polarización política a la comunicación digital? Sobre burbujas, plataformas y polarización afectiva (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al,2012
In the citing paper
“While the political divide has remained relatively stable in the United States in terms of issue positions (33), many other indicators point to a significant increase in partisan polarization and animosity in the mass public (18, 34): Democrats and Republicans are growing increasingly cold to each other, coming to dislike or even disdain their partisan opponents (15).”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Many scholars link these negative feelings to shifts in identity, with partisanship emerging as an important social identity under which many societal divisions and conflicts are coming to align (15–18).”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Iyengar et al. (2012) grounded affective polarization in Tajfel and Turner's (1979) social identity theory: partisanship is a social, not simply a political, identity.”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“sorting causes partisans to “dislike, even loathe” one another (15)”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Beginning with Iyengar et al. (2012), scholars have often used two measures that were included in surveys long before theories of affective polarization emerged: party feeling thermometers and social distance items.”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Estas inercias contribuyen a un aumento en los niveles de polarización y hostilidad intergrupal, impulsando las emociones negativas hacia aquellos que se identifican con grupos opuestos (Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes, 2012).”
From Homofilia, polarización afectiva y desinformación en Twitter. Caso de estudio sobre la crisis migratoria #Openarms (2021) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes, 2012
In the citing paper
“they find “The difference in social distance between the parties was highly significant (p < .01)…Republicans maintain greater social distance from Democrats” (418).”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Las creencias amplificadas y percepciones segregadas sobre el mundo forman la base para tomar actitudes (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From Homofilia, polarización afectiva y desinformación en Twitter. Caso de estudio sobre la crisis migratoria #Openarms (2021) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“and that extremity in issue opinions is not a necessary condition for affective polarization”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Rather, we argue that affective polarization is largely distinct from the ideological divide”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“and ( b ) affective polarization actually decreased between 2012 and 2016.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Iyengar et al. (2012) show that Americans have become increasingly averse to the prospect of their child marrying someone from the opposing party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“It is particularly noteworthy that ( a ) the change is not that people like their own party more over time; rather, there is an increase in out-party animus, especially in recent years”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“We also plot affective polarization ( gray line )-the difference between mean in-party feeling and mean out-party feeling-which shows a significant increase over time (Iyengar et al. 2012), mainly due to an increase in animus against the out-party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“with Republicans especially sensitive to crossparty marriage”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“In 1960, only 4-5% were upset with their child marrying someone from the out party, but that figure had jumped to one-third of Democrats and one-half of Republicans by 2010 (Iyengar et al. 2012, pp. 416-18).”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“According to Iyengar et al. (2012), the percentage of Americans who would be somewhat or very unhappy if their child married someone of the opposite party has increased by about 35 percentage points over the last 50 years”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Finally, affective polarization (Fig. 1c) occurs when members of different social groups (or political parties) hold strong positive or negative attitudes (or feelings) about the groups themselves (not just their policy preferences49,79), owing to ‘in-party love’ and/or ‘out-party animus’80.”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [79]
In the citing paper
“Se coincide en la importancia de las campañas como fenómenos que aumentan la manifestación de la identidad social y afectiva (Iyengar et al., 2012;Rodríguez et al., 2022).”
From Polarización en Twitter/X: análisis del debate generado por los medios de comunicación durante las elecciones locales y autonómicas del 28-M 2023 en España (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Desde la perspectiva de Iyengar, el elemento constitutivo del proceso de polarización se desprende de las percepciones y miradas hacia "el otro" (político) que van tejiendo la hostilidad afectiva entre grupos.”
From “TE AMO, TE ODIO: DAME MÁS”*Polarización afectiva en la opinión pública argentina (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012)
In the citing paper
“Scholars have made the conceptual distinction between issue polarization—an ideological, policy-based political divide, and affective polarization, i.e. dislike, distrust, and general animosity of political partisans toward the other political side (5, 61, 62).”
From Troll and divide: the language of online polarization (2022) · cites this paper as [61]
Citations
Cites
Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys
Rubin, D. B. (1987) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/9780470316696 · Cited by 20,701
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,701
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202 · Cited by 5,562
Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination
Tajfel, H. (1970) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96 · Cited by 2,577
Amelia II: A Program for Missing Data
Honaker, J., King, G., & Blackwell, M. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i07 · Cited by 2,552
THE NATURE OF BELIEF SYSTEMS IN MASS PUBLICS
Converse, P. E. (2004) · Aarhus University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/jj.35529187.18 · Cited by 2,497
Unequal democracy: the political economy of the new gilded age
(2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-1746 · Cited by 2,314
Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use
Iyengar, S., & Hahn, K. S. (2009) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x · Cited by 1,940
Self-citationPartisan Hearts and Minds: Political Parties and the Social Identities of Voters
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-5486 · Cited by 1,800
Polarized America: the dance of ideology and unequal riches
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-3551 · Cited by 1,793
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- 1995, Why Parties?
- 1960, Civic Culture Study, 1959–1960 [Computer file]. ICPSR07201-v2
- 2001, “The Polarizing Effects of Congressional Primaries.”, 95
- 1959, Political Socialization
- 1987, “The Salience of Social Categories.”, 117
- 1991, Parties and Leaders in the Post-Reform House
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 2,727
Segregation and clustering of preferences erode socially beneficial coordination
de Vasconcelos, V. V. L., Constantino, S. M., Dannenberg, A., Lumkowsky, M., Weber, E. U., & Levin, S. A. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2102153118 · Cited by 43
Ecker, U. K. H., Sze, B. K. N., & Andreotta, M. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2020.0145 · Cited by 40
van Erkel, P. F. A., & Turkenburg, E. (2022) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773922000121 · Cited by 46
Polarization, Partisan Sorting, and the Politics of Education
Houston, D. M. (2024) · American Educational Research Journal · doi:10.3102/00028312241228280 · Cited by 43
Evidence of Conflict Extension in Partisans’ Evaluations of People and Inanimate Objects
Banda, K. K., Carsey, T. M., & Severenchuk, S. (2019) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x19858002 · Cited by 38
Facts and Where to Find Them: Empirical Research on Internet Platforms and Content Moderation
Keller, D., & Leerssen, P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.011 · Cited by 39
Moral grandstanding and political polarization: A multi-study consideration
Grubbs, J. B., Warmke, B., Tosi, J., & James, A. S. (2020) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2020.104009 · Cited by 41
Zhu, Q., & Škorić, M. M. (2021) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444821999994 · Cited by 38
Tóth, F., Mihelj, S., Štětka, V., & Kondor, K. (2022) · The International Journal of Press/Politics · doi:10.1177/19401612211072552 · Cited by 49
Public Service Motivation and Public Opinion
Piatak, J., & Holt, S. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108966672 · Cited by 40
Persistent Polarizing Effects of Persuasion: Experimental Evidence from Turkey
Baysan, C. (2022) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.20201892 · Cited by 38
Identity, Diversity, and Team Performance: Evidence from U.S. Mutual Funds
Evans, R. B., Prado, M. P., Rizzo, A. E., & Zambrana, R. (2019) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2022.00544 · Cited by 50
Ársælsson, K. M., & Gastil, J. (2021) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-021-09742-6 · Cited by 37
Online Incivility in the 2020 Congressional Elections
Heseltine, M., & Dorsey, S. (2022) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129221078863 · Cited by 41
Deepening the rift: Negative campaigning fosters affective polarization in multiparty elections
Martin, D., & Nai, A. (2024) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2024.102745 · Cited by 45
Zheng, P., & Shahin, S. (2018) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2018.1503697 · Cited by 37
Polarized platforms? How partisanship shapes perceptions of “algorithmic news bias”
Calice, M. N., Bao, L., Freiling, I., Howell, E. L., Xenos, M. A., Yang, S., Brossard, D., Newman, T. P., & Scheufele, D. A. (2021) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/14614448211034159 · Cited by 41
Gender Role Violations and Voter Prejudice: The Agentic Penalty Faced by Women Politicians
Schneider, M. C., Bos, A. L., & DiFilippo, M. (2021) · Journal of Women Politics & Policy · doi:10.1080/1554477x.2021.1981095 · Cited by 37
Wojcieszak, M., Azrout, R., & de Vreese, C. (2018) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfx040 · Cited by 37
Petkevič, V., & Nai, A. (2021) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x211055676 · Cited by 40
Party Politics vs. Grievance Politics: Competing Modes of Representative Democracy
Flinders, M. V., & Hinterleitner, M. (2022) · Society · doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00686-z · Cited by 42
Elite communication and affective polarization among voters
Bäck, H., Carroll, R., Renström, E. A., & Ryan, A. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102639 · Cited by 45
Chan, M., & Yi, J. (2024) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2024.2325423 · Cited by 71
Victimhood: The most powerful force in morality and politics
Gray, K. J., & Kubin, E. (2024) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.03.004 · Cited by 46
Esau, K., Choucair, T. D. S., Vilkins, S., Svegaard, S. F. K., Bruns, A., O’Connor-Farfan, K. S., & Lubicz-Zaorski, C. (2024) · Information Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2024.2413127 · Cited by 52
Emotion and Political Judgment
Johnston, C. D., Lavine, H. G., & Woodson, B. W. (2015) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912915593644 · Cited by 40
To Unite and Divide: The Polarizing Effect of Presidential Debates
Warner, B. R., & McKinney, M. S. (2013) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2013.832341 · Cited by 37
Scruggs, X., & Schrodt, P. (2020) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267431.2020.1860053 · Cited by 36
Suk, J., Coppini, D., Múñiz, C., & Rojas, H. (2021) · Communication and the Public · doi:10.1177/20570473211063237 · Cited by 42
Lay Belief in Biopolitics and Political Prejudice
Suhay, E., Brandt, M. J., & Proulx, T. (2016) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550616667615 · Cited by 37
Partisan Conformity, Social Identity, and the Formation of Policy Preferences
Toff, B., & Suhay, E. (2018) · International Journal of Public Opinion Research · doi:10.1093/ijpor/edy014 · Cited by 39
Primaries and Candidate Polarization: Behavioral Theory and Experimental Evidence
Woon, J. (2018) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055418000515 · Cited by 35
Bergmann, H., Bäck, H., & Saalfeld, T. (2021) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2020.1870345 · Cited by 36
Reducing Political Dehumanization by Pairing Facts With Personal Experiences
Kubin, E., Gray, K. J., & von Sikorski, C. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12875 · Cited by 38
Reconsidering partisanship as a constraint on the persuasive effects of debates
Warner, B. R., McKinney, M. S., Bramlett, J. C., Jennings, F. J., & Funk, M. E. (2019) · Communication Monographs · doi:10.1080/03637751.2019.1641731 · Cited by 37
Reranking partisan animosity in algorithmic social media feeds alters affective polarization
Piccardi, T., Saveski, M., Jia, C., Hancock, J., Tsai, J. L., & Bernstein, M. S. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.adu5584 · Cited by 34
Bozdag, C. (2020) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305120975713 · Cited by 59
Immigration Threat, Partisanship, and Democratic Citizenship: Evidence from the US, UK, and Germany
Goodman, S. W. (2021) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/0010414021997165 · Cited by 34
The Dynamics of Social Identity: Evidence from Deliberating Groups
Myers, C. D. (2021) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12749 · Cited by 36
Red state, purple town: Polarized communities and local journalism in rural and small-town Kentucky
Wenzel, A. D. (2018) · Journalism · doi:10.1177/1464884918783949 · Cited by 34
Exposure to opposing reasons reduces negative impressions of ideological opponents
Stanley, M. L., Whitehead, P. S., Sinnott-Armstrong, W. P., & Seli, P. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2020.104030 · Cited by 35
Revisiting Political Polarisation in Indonesia: A Case Study of Jakarta’s Electorate
Afrimadona, A. (2021) · Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs · doi:10.1177/18681034211007490 · Cited by 49
Preaching to the Choir? Rhetoric and Identity in a Polarized Age
Goodman, R., & Bagg, S. E. (2021) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/715171 · Cited by 32
Liang, H., & Zhang, X. (2021) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1093/joc/jqab008 · Cited by 34
Polarisation in Southern Europe: Elites, Party Conflicts and Negative Partisanship
Bosco, A., & Verney, S. (2020) · South European Society and Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2020.1971444 · Cited by 34
Hernández‐Lagos, P., & Minor, D. B. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1561/100.00018063 · Cited by 36
Hanel, P. H. P., Wolfradt, U., Maio, G. R., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.07.002 · Cited by 32
Carlson, T. N., McClean, C. T., & Settle, J. E. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12594 · Cited by 33
Liking versus commenting on online news: effects of expression affordances on political attitudes
Wang, J., & Sundar, S. S. (2022) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmac018 · Cited by 35
Does affective polarization contribute to democratic backsliding in America?
Druckman, J. N., Green, D. P., & Iyengar, S. (2023) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162241228952 · Cited by 33
Self-citationWhen elites polarize over polarization: Framing the polarization debate in Turkey
Aydın‐Düzgit, S., & Balta, E. (2018) · New Perspectives on Turkey · doi:10.1017/npt.2018.15 · Cited by 33
Terrorism and Social Media: Global Evidence
Asongu, S. A., Orim, S.-M., & Nting, R. T. (2019) · Journal of Global Information Technology Management · doi:10.1080/1097198x.2019.1642023 · Cited by 33
Emotional foundations of the public climate change divide
Hahnel, U. J. J., Mumenthaler, C., & Brosch, T. (2019) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-019-02552-0 · Cited by 33
An uninformed electorate: identity-motivated elaboration, partisan cues, and learning
Jennings, F. J. (2019) · Journal of Applied Communication Research · doi:10.1080/00909882.2019.1679385 · Cited by 41
Democratic Creative Destruction? The Effect of a Changing Media Landscape on Democracy
Nielsen, R. K., & Fletcher, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.008 · Cited by 35
Dark triad, partisanship and violent intentions in the United States
Gøtzsche‐Astrup, O. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110633 · Cited by 39
Box‐Steffensmeier, J. M., & Moses, L. M. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abg2898 · Cited by 33
The Israel Polarization Panel Dataset, 2019–2021
Gidron, N., Sheffer, L., & Mor-Lan, G. (2022) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102512 · Cited by 34
The objectivity illusion and voter polarization in the 2016 presidential election
Schwalbe, M. C., Cohen, G. L., & Ross, L. D. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1912301117 · Cited by 54
Political Conformity: Event-Study Evidence from the United States
Perez-Truglia, R. (2018) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/rest_a_00683 · Cited by 44
Party–Group Ambivalence and Voter Loyalty: Results From Three Experiments
Shufeldt, G. (2017) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x17705854 · Cited by 33
He, Y., Costa, P. L., Walker, J. M., Miner, K. N., & Wooderson, R. L. (2019) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2856 · Cited by 32
Exploring the Psychological Foundations of Ideological and Social Sorting
Weber, C. R., & Klar, S. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12574 · Cited by 34
Chan, M. (2020) · Asian Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/01292986.2020.1781219 · Cited by 32
Wright, J. M., Clark, J. H., & Evans, H. K. (2021) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912920987631 · Cited by 33
Deliberation and polarization: a multi-disciplinary review
Caluwaerts, D., Bernaerts, K., Kesberg, R., Smets, L., & Spruyt, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2023.1127372 · Cited by 44
End of consensus? Ideology, partisan identity, and affective polarization in Finland 2003–2019
Kawecki, D. (2022) · Scandinavian Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9477.12238 · Cited by 55
Reyes-Menéndez, A., Mediavilla, J. C., & García, N. V. (2023) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2023.122785 · Cited by 32
Blinded by the Spite? Path Model of Political Attitudes, Selectivity, and Social Media
Johnson, T. J., Kaye, B. K., & Lee, A. M. (2017) · Atlantic Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/15456870.2017.1324454 · Cited by 35
Social Affect and Political Disagreement on Social Media
Barnidge, M. (2018) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305118797721 · Cited by 32
Listening During Political Conversations: Traits and Situations
Eveland, W. P., Coduto, K. D., Appiah, O., & Bullock, O. M. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1736701 · Cited by 32
Metadehumanization erodes democratic norms during the 2020 presidential election
Landry, A., Ihm, E. D., Kwit, S., & Schooler, J. W. (2021) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12253 · Cited by 31
Existe polarização política no Brasil? Análise das evidências em duas séries de pesquisas de opinião
Ortellado, P., Ribeiro, M. M., & Zeine, L. (2022) · Opinião Pública · doi:10.1590/1807-0191202228162 · Cited by 52
Santos, L. A., Voelkel, J. G., Willer, R., & Zaki, J. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976221098594 · Cited by 32
Rekker, R., & Harteveld, E. (2024) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-022-00265-4 · Cited by 32
Baron, H., Blair, R., Choi, D. D., Gamboa, L., Gottlieb, J., Robinson, A. L., Rosenzweig, S. C., Turnbull, M., & West, E. A. (2025) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-024-09993-z · Cited by 38
Si, Y., Reiter, J. P., & Hillygus, D. S. (2014) · Political Analysis · doi:10.1093/pan/mpu009 · Cited by 31
Attributions as Anchors: How the Public Explains School Shootings and Why It Matters
Lee, H., Pickett, J. T., Burton, A. L., Cullen, F. T., Jonson, C. L., & Burton, Jr. (2022) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2020.1769710 · Cited by 31
Degrees of Disrespect: How Only Extreme and Rare Incivility Alienates the Base
Skytte, R. (2021) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/717852 · Cited by 35
Yapay Zekâ Etiği: Toplum Üzerine Etkisi
TURAN, T., TURAN, G., & Küçüksille, E. U. (2022) · Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi · doi:10.29048/makufebed.1058538 · Cited by 34
Comellas, J. M. (2022) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2022.102525 · Cited by 35
Divided by Europe: affective polarisation in the context of European elections
Hahm, H., Hilpert, D., & König, T. (2022) · West European Politics · doi:10.1080/01402382.2022.2133277 · Cited by 34
The Mobilizing Effect of Party System Polarization. Evidence From Europe
Ellger, F. (2023) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140231194059 · Cited by 40
If They Say “Yes,” We Say “No”: Partisan Cues Increase Polarization Over National Symbols
Satherley, N., Yogeeswaran, K., Osborne, D., & Sibley, C. G. (2018) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797618805420 · Cited by 31
Yikes! Are we disgusted by politicians?
Bakker, B. N., Schumacher, G., & Homan, M. D. (2020) · Politics and the Life Sciences · doi:10.1017/pls.2020.16 · Cited by 31
Cued by Culture: Political Imagery and Partisan Evaluations
Hiaeshutter-Rice, D., Neuner, F. G., & Soroka, S. (2021) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-021-09726-6 · Cited by 31
Abascal, M., Huang, T. J., & Tran, V. C. (2021) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162211053987 · Cited by 35
Kreiss, D. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95945-0_13 · Cited by 31
Ludwig, K., Grote, A., Iana, A., Alam, M., Paulheim, H., Sack, H., Weinhardt, C., & Müller, P. (2023) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393221149290 · Cited by 44
The Political Polarization of U.S. FirmsPreprint
Fos, V., Kempf, E., & Tsoutsoura, M. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3784969 · Cited by 31
Fighting the Infodemic on Two Fronts: Reducing False Beliefs Without Increasing Polarization
Dan, V., & Dixon, G. (2021) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/10755470211020411 · Cited by 31
Zingher, J. N., & Flynn, M. E. (2018) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2018.11.007 · Cited by 30
Divided We Unite: The Nature of Partyism and the Role of Coalition Partnership in Europe
Hahm, H., Hilpert, D., & König, T. (2023) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055423000266 · Cited by 35
Cleavage theory meets Bourdieu: studying the role of group identities in cleavage formation
Westheuser, L., & Zollinger, D. (2024) · European Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s1755773924000249 · Cited by 38
Abramowitz, A. I., & Webster, S. W. (2015) · Cited by 30
Rieger, D., Frischlich, L., & Bente, G. (2019) · Media War & Conflict · doi:10.1177/1750635219829165 · Cited by 30
Shin, J., Yang, A., Liu, W., Kim, H. M., Zhou, A. Y., & Sun, J. (2022) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/20563051221086233 · Cited by 30
Tian, Y., & Yang, J. (2022) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2022.102182 · Cited by 45
Modeling Explosive Opinion Depolarization in Interdependent Topics
Ojer, J., Starnini, M., & Pastor‐Satorras, R. (2023) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.130.207401 · Cited by 34
Veenstra, A. S., Lyons, B. A., & Fowler-Dawson, A. (2016) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2015.1127851 · Cited by 32
Metadata
- Authors
- Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- ORCID
- Iyengar, Shanto
- Venue
- Public Opinion Quarterly
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-09-01
- Volume
- 76
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 405-431
- ISSN
- 0033-362X (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5331
- OpenAlex
- W2124751389
- Semantic Scholar
- 1932d6438e6b18d4a97fb3c88c0463fc08b12879
- Cited by
- 2,996
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 465 · 2025: 445 · 2024: 388 · 2023: 275 · 2022: 299 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 247 · 2019: 162 · 2018: 170 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 149.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Public Opinion Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- political polarization, partisan affect, social distance, partisanship, ideology, policy attitudes, outgroup hostility, political campaigns, partisan sorting, American public opinion
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
