The DOI matches its Crossref record; 53 of the 53 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Affect, Not Ideology
Abstract
The current debate over the extent of polarization in the American mass public focuses on the extent to which partisans’ policy preferences have moved. Whereas “maximalists” claim that partisans’ views on policies have become more extreme over time (Abramowitz 2010), “minimalists” (Fiorina and Abrams 2009) contend that the majority of Americans remain centrist, and that what little centrifugal movement has occurred reflects sorting, i.e., the increased association between partisanship and ideology. We argue in favor of an alternative definition of polarization, based on the classic concept of social distance (Bogardus 1947). Using data from a variety of sources, we demonstrate that both Republicans and Democrats increasingly dislike, even loathe, their opponents. We also find that partisan affect is inconsistently (and perhaps artifactually) founded in policy attitudes. The more plausible account lies in the nature of political campaigns; exposure to messages attacking the out-group reinforces partisans’ biased views of their opponents.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These observational approaches raise a critical inferential challenge, as they do not allow researchers to separate the impact of obtaining factual knowledge from the effect of other variables that are typically correlated with both domain-specific political knowledge and attitude polarization, such as the intensity of one’s political group identity11, one’s pre-existing factual beliefs21, or one’”
From Factual knowledge can reduce attitude polarization (2025) · cites this paper as [22]
In the citing paper
“A growing body of evidence shows that affective polarization is indeed on the rise in the United States.”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Available research shows that US voters’ evaluation of their own parties and candidates is stable, yet they have come to dislike their opponents more over time (Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012, p. 413; Abramowitz and Webster 2016, p. 15; Finkel et al. 2020, p. 534).”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Available research shows that US voters’ evaluation of their own parties and candidates is stable, yet they have come to dislike their opponents more over time (Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012, p. 413; Abramowitz and Webster 2016, p. 15; Finkel et al. 2020, p. 534).”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“This development appears to be driven by voters’ tendency to increasingly dislike parties and candidates they do not support.”
From Affective Polarization in Comparative and Longitudinal Perspective (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood, and Lelkes 2012
In the citing paper
“Second, selective exposure to like-minded information would also likely result in affective polarizationa process of opinion formation in which individuals develop diverging evaluations of attitude objects (e.g., in-group vs. out-group candidates) in a partisan context (Abramowitz & Webster, 2016;Iyengar et al., 2012;Levendusky, 2018).”
From Do Search Algorithms Endanger Democracy? An Experimental Investigation of Algorithm Effects on Political Polarization (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Recent work on public opinion suggests that there is an increasing tendency that people, especially partisans, defend the in-group and dislike the out-group (Iyengar et al., 2012;Levendusky, 2018).”
From Do Search Algorithms Endanger Democracy? An Experimental Investigation of Algorithm Effects on Political Polarization (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“it may boost accountability and decrease corruption but can also contribute to the aforementioned harmful forms of polarization”
From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Firstly, ideological polarization of political parties was shown to increase partisanship (Iyengar et al., 2012;Lupu, 2015)”
From Political polarization and corruption: A theoretical and empirical review (2024) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“De acuerdo a nuestra búsqueda, Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012) son los primeros autores en acuñar el término”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012)
In the citing paper
“Varios investigadores en ciencia política sostienen que la polarización afectiva refleja ese proceso en un estado de hiperactividad (Garrett et al., 2014;Iyengar et al., 2012;Van Babel y Pereira, 2018).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Utilizando esta medida, Iyengar et al. (2012) muestran como la polarización en EEUU ha ido creciendo sostenidamente en las últimas décadas.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En su trabajo pionero realizado a partir de datos de encuestas en series de tiempo, Iyengar et al. (2012) mostraron que la creciente hostilidad entre los líderes demócratas y republicanos a partir de campañas agresivas contribuyó a la polarización afectiva en EEUU en las últimas décadas, medida a partir de cambios en la distancia social tolerada y el nivel de cercanía afectiva.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Esto se debe a que el grado de afecto hacia el partido opositor es cada vez más bajo.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En la última década, la literatura en ciencia política ha introducido un nuevo concepto denominado "polarización afectiva" para caracterizar una forma de polarización política en la que predominan actitudes de favoritismo por el propio grupo y desprecio hacia el grupo rival.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“No obstante, cuando el análisis se restringe a esos dos términos, el resultado persiste.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En contraste, el grado de afecto hacia el partido propio se ha mantenido relativamente estable a lo largo de las últimas décadas.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“En 1960, sólo al 4-5% le resultaba molesto que su hijo se case con alguien del partido opuesto, mientras que para 2010 esa cifra saltó al 33% en los demócratas y al 50% en los republicanos (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“En su estudio pionero, Iyengar y colaboradores (2012) muestran que los americanos expresan cada vez más negatividad ante la perspectiva de que su hijo se case con alguien del partido contrario.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Por ejemplo, Iyengar et al. (2012) compararon dos encuestas del tipo mencionado, una realizada en 1960 y otra en 2008 en EEUU, y encuentran que el sesgo in-group de adscribir más rasgos positivos hacia los del propio partido y el sesgo out-group de asignar más rasgos negativos a los miembros del partido rival crecieron exponencialmente de un período al otro.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Aunque Iyengar y colaboradores no reportan el resultado de la correlación, sí muestran que mientras la polarización afectiva es creciente con el paso del tiempo, la polarización ideológica es estable.”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Particularmente, es claro que los investigadores del área pretenden distinguir la polarización afectiva (o actitudinal) de la polarización ideológica (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From El estudio de la polarización afectiva: una mirada metodológica (2022) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“La polarización política implica el dominio de la identidad partidaria/ideológica sobre otras formas de identificación y acción política (Iyengar et al,2012)”
From ¿Es válido atribuir la polarización política a la comunicación digital? Sobre burbujas, plataformas y polarización afectiva (2020) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al,2012
In the citing paper
“While the political divide has remained relatively stable in the United States in terms of issue positions (33), many other indicators point to a significant increase in partisan polarization and animosity in the mass public (18, 34): Democrats and Republicans are growing increasingly cold to each other, coming to dislike or even disdain their partisan opponents (15).”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Many scholars link these negative feelings to shifts in identity, with partisanship emerging as an important social identity under which many societal divisions and conflicts are coming to align (15–18).”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Iyengar et al. (2012) grounded affective polarization in Tajfel and Turner's (1979) social identity theory: partisanship is a social, not simply a political, identity.”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“sorting causes partisans to “dislike, even loathe” one another (15)”
From How digital media drive affective polarization through partisan sorting (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Beginning with Iyengar et al. (2012), scholars have often used two measures that were included in surveys long before theories of affective polarization emerged: party feeling thermometers and social distance items.”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Estas inercias contribuyen a un aumento en los niveles de polarización y hostilidad intergrupal, impulsando las emociones negativas hacia aquellos que se identifican con grupos opuestos (Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes, 2012).”
From Homofilia, polarización afectiva y desinformación en Twitter. Caso de estudio sobre la crisis migratoria #Openarms (2021) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes, 2012
In the citing paper
“they find “The difference in social distance between the parties was highly significant (p < .01)…Republicans maintain greater social distance from Democrats” (418).”
From Measuring affective polarization: Matching concepts to measures (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Las creencias amplificadas y percepciones segregadas sobre el mundo forman la base para tomar actitudes (Iyengar et al., 2012).”
From Homofilia, polarización afectiva y desinformación en Twitter. Caso de estudio sobre la crisis migratoria #Openarms (2021) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“and that extremity in issue opinions is not a necessary condition for affective polarization”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Rather, we argue that affective polarization is largely distinct from the ideological divide”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“and ( b ) affective polarization actually decreased between 2012 and 2016.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Iyengar et al. (2012) show that Americans have become increasingly averse to the prospect of their child marrying someone from the opposing party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“It is particularly noteworthy that ( a ) the change is not that people like their own party more over time; rather, there is an increase in out-party animus, especially in recent years”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“We also plot affective polarization ( gray line )-the difference between mean in-party feeling and mean out-party feeling-which shows a significant increase over time (Iyengar et al. 2012), mainly due to an increase in animus against the out-party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Ordinary Americans increasingly dislike and distrust those from the other party.”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“with Republicans especially sensitive to crossparty marriage”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“In 1960, only 4-5% were upset with their child marrying someone from the out party, but that figure had jumped to one-third of Democrats and one-half of Republicans by 2010 (Iyengar et al. 2012, pp. 416-18).”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“According to Iyengar et al. (2012), the percentage of Americans who would be somewhat or very unhappy if their child married someone of the opposite party has increased by about 35 percentage points over the last 50 years”
From The Origins and Consequences of Affective Polarization in the United States (2019) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al. (2012)
In the citing paper
“Finally, affective polarization (Fig. 1c) occurs when members of different social groups (or political parties) hold strong positive or negative attitudes (or feelings) about the groups themselves (not just their policy preferences49,79), owing to ‘in-party love’ and/or ‘out-party animus’80.”
From Cognitive–motivational mechanisms of political polarization in social-communicative contexts (2022) · cites this paper as [79]
In the citing paper
“Se coincide en la importancia de las campañas como fenómenos que aumentan la manifestación de la identidad social y afectiva (Iyengar et al., 2012;Rodríguez et al., 2022).”
From Polarización en Twitter/X: análisis del debate generado por los medios de comunicación durante las elecciones locales y autonómicas del 28-M 2023 en España (2026) · cites this paper as Iyengar et al., 2012
In the citing paper
“Desde la perspectiva de Iyengar, el elemento constitutivo del proceso de polarización se desprende de las percepciones y miradas hacia "el otro" (político) que van tejiendo la hostilidad afectiva entre grupos.”
From “TE AMO, TE ODIO: DAME MÁS”*Polarización afectiva en la opinión pública argentina (2023) · cites this paper as Iyengar, Sood y Lelkes (2012)
In the citing paper
“Scholars have made the conceptual distinction between issue polarization—an ideological, policy-based political divide, and affective polarization, i.e. dislike, distrust, and general animosity of political partisans toward the other political side (5, 61, 62).”
From Troll and divide: the language of online polarization (2022) · cites this paper as [61]
Citations
Cites
Multiple Imputation for Nonresponse in Surveys
Rubin, D. B. (1987) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/9780470316696 · Cited by 20,701
An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199269464.003.0005 · Cited by 12,701
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202 · Cited by 5,562
Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination
Tajfel, H. (1970) · Scientific American · doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1170-96 · Cited by 2,577
Amelia II: A Program for Missing Data
Honaker, J., King, G., & Blackwell, M. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i07 · Cited by 2,552
THE NATURE OF BELIEF SYSTEMS IN MASS PUBLICS
Converse, P. E. (2004) · Aarhus University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/jj.35529187.18 · Cited by 2,497
Unequal democracy: the political economy of the new gilded age
(2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-1746 · Cited by 2,314
Red Media, Blue Media: Evidence of Ideological Selectivity in Media Use
Iyengar, S., & Hahn, K. S. (2009) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.01402.x · Cited by 1,940
Self-citationPartisan Hearts and Minds: Political Parties and the Social Identities of Voters
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-5486 · Cited by 1,800
Polarized America: the dance of ideology and unequal riches
(2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-3551 · Cited by 1,793
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- 1995, Why Parties?
- 1960, Civic Culture Study, 1959–1960 [Computer file]. ICPSR07201-v2
- 2001, “The Polarizing Effects of Congressional Primaries.”, 95
- 1959, Political Socialization
- 1987, “The Salience of Social Categories.”, 117
- 1991, Parties and Leaders in the Post-Reform House
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 2,727
Ma, Y., & Hmielowski, J. D. (2021) · Environmental Communication · doi:10.1080/17524032.2021.1994442 · Cited by 30
The antecedents and consequences of intergroup affective polarisation on social media
Wakefield, R. L., & Wakefield, K. L. (2022) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12419 · Cited by 41
Yang, F., Cai, M., Mortenson, C. R., Fakhari, H., Lokmanoglu, A. D., Hullman, J. R., Franconeri, S., Diakopoulos, N. A., Nisbet, E. C., & Kay, M. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2023.3327356 · Cited by 30
Rooted America: Immobility and Segregation of the Intercounty Migration Network
Huang, P., & Butts, C. T. (2023) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224231212679 · Cited by 41
Partisanship vs. Principle: Understanding Public Opinion on Same-Day Registration
McCarthy, D. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz027 · Cited by 29
The role of affective orientations in promoting perceived polarization
Armaly, M., & Enders, A. M. (2020) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2020.24 · Cited by 32
Berardo, R., Holm, F., Heikkila, T., et al. (2020) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101660 · Cited by 29
Patkós, V. (2022) · Quality & Quantity · doi:10.1007/s11135-022-01350-8 · Cited by 37
The political irruption of short video: Is TikTok a new window for Spanish parties?
Gamir-Ríos, J., & Castillo, S. S. (2022) · Communication & Society · doi:10.15581/003.35.2.37-52 · Cited by 31
Advancing bipartisan decarbonization policies: Lessons from state-level successes and failures
Marshall, R., & Burgess, M. G. (2021) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-022-03335-w · Cited by 30
Miller, J. D., Ackerman, M. S., Laspra, B., Polino, C., & Huffaker, J. S. (2022) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.202200730 · Cited by 27
Thams, Y., & Dau, L. A. (2023) · Journal of World Business · doi:10.1016/j.jwb.2023.101475 · Cited by 29
Changing stereotypes of partisans in the Trump Era
Busby, E. C., Howat, A. J., & Myers, C. D. (2023) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2023.30 · Cited by 28
Advances in Public Opinion and Policy Attitudes Research
Bachner, J., & Hill, K. W. (2014) · Policy Studies Journal · doi:10.1111/psj.12052 · Cited by 29
How Partisan Conflict in Congress Affects Public Opinion
Flynn, D. J., & Harbridge‐Yong, L. (2015) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x15610425 · Cited by 36
Paris, C. (2017) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfw089 · Cited by 33
Tsatsanis, E., Teperoglou, E., & Seriatos, A. (2020) · South European Society & Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2020.1855798 · Cited by 32
Just like the others: Party differences, perception, and satisfaction with democracy
Ridge, H. M. (2021) · Party Politics · doi:10.1177/1354068820985193 · Cited by 31
From Context Collapse to “Safe Spaces”: Selective Avoidance through Tie Dissolution on Social Media
Zhu, Q., & Škorić, M. M. (2021) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2021.1883671 · Cited by 28
Electoral Competition and Partisan Affective Polarisation in Spain
Rodríguez, I., Santamaría, D. B., & Miller, L. M. (2022) · South European Society & Politics · doi:10.1080/13608746.2022.2038492 · Cited by 41
Ahn, C., & Mutz, D. C. (2023) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfad012 · Cited by 33
Authoritarianism, Affective Polarization, and Economic Ideology
Johnston, C. D. (2018) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12483 · Cited by 30
McCoy, J., Simonovits, G., & Littvay, L. (2020) · doi:10.33774/apsa-2020-sk4k9 · Cited by 27
Value extremity contributes to affective polarization in the US
Enders, A. M., & Lupton, R. N. (2021) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2020.27 · Cited by 48
Schieferdecker, D. (2021) · Javnost - The Public · doi:10.1080/13183222.2021.1969620 · Cited by 27
Wu, Y. R., & Shen, F. (2020) · Asian Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/01292986.2020.1784968 · Cited by 28
Affective Polarization and Support for the U.S. Supreme Court
Armaly, M., & Enders, A. M. (2021) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129211006196 · Cited by 27
The Downsian roots of affective polarization
Algara, C., & Zur, R. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102581 · Cited by 33
Barnidge, M., Ardèvol‐Abreu, A., & de Zúñiga, H. G. (2016) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444816675183 · Cited by 27
Conspiratorial Thinking and Political Constraint
Enders, A. M. (2019) · Public Opinion Quarterly · doi:10.1093/poq/nfz032 · Cited by 27
Mainstream Marginalization: Secret Political Organizing Through Social Media
Duyn, E. V. (2020) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305120981044 · Cited by 28
Wróblewski, M., & Meler, A. (2024) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckae002 · Cited by 34
Persistent polarization: The unexpected durability of political animosity around US elections
Fasching, N., Iyengar, S., Yphtach Lelkes, B., & Westwood, S. J. (2024) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adm9198 · Cited by 30
Self-citationAhler, D. J. (2018) · The Forum · doi:10.1515/for-2018-0002 · Cited by 31
The Impact of Social Media Political Activists on Voting Patterns
Frimpong, A. N. K., Li, P., Nyame, G., & Hossin, M. A. (2020) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-020-09632-3 · Cited by 37
Selective Avoidance on Social Media: A Comparative Study of Western Democracies
Škorić, M. M., Zhu, Q., Koç-Michalska, K., Boulianne, S., & Bimber, B. (2021) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/08944393211005468 · Cited by 26
Rega, R., & Marchetti, R. (2021) · The Communication Review · doi:10.1080/10714421.2021.1938464 · Cited by 26
Love thy (partisan) neighbor: Brief befriending meditation reduces affective polarization
Simonsson, O., Narayanan, J., & Marks, J. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302211020108 · Cited by 35
Lee, S., & Moon, W.-K. (2021) · Public Relations Review · doi:10.1016/j.pubrev.2021.102084 · Cited by 28
Exposure to Extremely Partisan News from the Other Political Side Shows Scarce Boomerang Effects
Casas, A., Menchen-Trevino, E., & Wojcieszak, M. (2022) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-021-09769-9 · Cited by 28
Strategic identity signaling in heterogeneous networks
van der Does, T., Galešić, M., Dunivin, Z. O., & Smaldino, P. E. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2117898119 · Cited by 28
Protecting the Ingroup? Authoritarianism, Immigration Attitudes, and Affective Polarization
Renström, E. A., Bäck, H., & Carroll, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Political Science · doi:10.3389/fpos.2022.919236 · Cited by 38
Affective partisan polarization and moral dilemmas during the COVID-19 pandemic
Stoetzer, L. F., Munzert, S., Lowe, W., Çalı, B., Gohdes, A., Helbling, M., Maxwell, R., & Traunmüller, R. (2022) · Political Science Research and Methods · doi:10.1017/psrm.2022.13 · Cited by 25
Wells, C., & Friedland, L. A. (2023) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2023.2222267 · Cited by 28
Krupenkin, M., Rothschild, D. M., Hill, S., & Yom‐Tov, E. (2019) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244019830865 · Cited by 31
Comparative Media Regulation in the United States and Europe
Fukuyama, F., & Grotto, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.010 · Cited by 28
Testing theories of political persuasion using AI
Argyle, L. P., Busby, E. C., Gubler, J. R., Lyman, A., Olcott, J., Pond, J., & Wingate, D. (2025) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2412815122 · Cited by 53
Comparing stereotypes across racial and partisan lines: a study in affective polarisation
Carmines, E. G., & Nassar, R. L. (2021) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2021.1942015 · Cited by 27
The Two-Way Effects of Populism on Affective Polarization
Davis, B., Goodliffe, J., & Hawkins, K. A. (2024) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140241237453 · Cited by 31
Coffé, H., & Bolzendahl, C. (2016) · British Politics · doi:10.1057/bp.2016.9 · Cited by 24
Partisan Media Selectivity and Partisan Identity Threat: The Role of Social and Geographic Context
Long, J. A., Eveland, W. P., & Slater, M. D. (2018) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2018.1504302 · Cited by 28
What voters want from their parties: Testing the promise-keeping assumption
Werner, A. (2018) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2018.12.006 · Cited by 27
Political Consequences of Partisan Prejudice
Shafranek, R. M. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12596 · Cited by 27
Inclusion reduces political prejudice
Voelkel, J. G., Ren, D., & Brandt, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104149 · Cited by 26
Race–gender bias in white Americans’ preferences for gun availability
Hayes, M., Fortunato, D., & Hibbing, M. V. (2020) · Journal of Public Policy · doi:10.1017/s0143814x20000288 · Cited by 25
Aruguete, N., Calvo, E. F., Cantú, F., Ley, S., Scartascini, C., & Ventura, T. (2021) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2021.1924740 · Cited by 25
Skeptical Inertia in the Face of Polarization: News Consumption and Misinformation in Turkey
Bozdağ, Ç., & Koçer, S. (2022) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.v10i2.5057 · Cited by 30
Becoming an Ideologue: Social Sorting and the Microfoundations of Polarization
Rawlings, C. M. (2022) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v9.a13 · Cited by 29
Vegter, A., Lewis, A. R., & Bolin, C. J. (2023) · Politics and Religion · doi:10.1017/s1755048322000402 · Cited by 26
Performative Polarization: The Interactional and Cultural Drivers of Political Antagonism
Revers, M. (2023) · Cultural Sociology · doi:10.1177/17499755231188808 · Cited by 31
de Mello, V. O., Cheung, F., & Inzlicht, M. (2024) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-024-00062-z · Cited by 35
The roots of polarization in the individual reward system
Lefebvre, G., Deroy, O. D., & Bahrami, B. (2024) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2023.2011 · Cited by 26
Tweeting Presidential Primary Debates: Debate Processing Through Motivated Twitter Instruction
Jennings, F. J., Coker, C. R., McKinney, M. S., & Warner, B. R. (2017) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764217704867 · Cited by 25
Eschert, S., & Simon, B. C. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0211556 · Cited by 30
Online Political Advertising in the United States
Fowler, E. F., Franz, M. M., & Ridout, T. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108890960.007 · Cited by 26
de Mello, V. O., Cheung, F., & Inzlicht, M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4x5em · Cited by 25
Cameron, C. D., Scheffer, J. A., Hadjiandreou, E., & Anderson, S. (2022) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2022.04.005 · Cited by 27
Affective polarization and habits of political participation
Phillips, J. B. (2023) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102733 · Cited by 32
Morality in Our Mind and Across Cultures and Politics
Gray, K. J., & Pratt, S. (2024) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-020924-124236 · Cited by 32
Partisanship and Perceptions of Party-Line Voting in Congress
Dancey, L., & Sheagley, G. (2017) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1065912917722233 · Cited by 25
Pearson, G. D. H., & Knobloch‐Westerwick, S. (2019) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205436.2019.1599956 · Cited by 24
Christenson, D. P., & Weisberg, H. F. (2019) · Electoral Studies · doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2019.03.008 · Cited by 29
Hernandez, T. N., & Sarge, M. A. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106384 · Cited by 17
Screw Those Guys: Polarization, Empathy, and Attitudes About Out‐Partisans
Allamong, M. B., & Peterson, D. A. M. (2020) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12701 · Cited by 29
How do Public Officials Learn About Policy? A Field Experiment on Policy Diffusion
Pereira, M. M. (2021) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123420000770 · Cited by 25
Sociopolitical intellectual humility as a predictor of political attitudes and behavioral intentions
Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J., & Newman, B. (2021) · Journal of Social and Political Psychology · doi:10.5964/jspp.5553 · Cited by 32
How does selective exposure affect partisan polarisation? Media consumption on electoral campaigns
Dueñas, J. M. R., & Tejero, M. L. V. (2021) · Journal of International Communication · doi:10.1080/13216597.2021.1899957 · Cited by 26
Bridging the Divide: Does Social Capital Moderate the Impact of Polarization on Health?
Panagopoulos, C., Fraser, T., Aldrich, D. P., Kim, D. J., & Hummel, D. (2021) · Political Research Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10659129211034561 · Cited by 26
Donald Trump’s Effect on Who is Considered “Conservative”
Amira, K. A. (2022) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x221112395 · Cited by 24
Intergroup contact reduces affective polarization but not among strong party identifiers
Thomsen, J. P. F., & Thomsen, A. H. (2022) · Scandinavian Political Studies · doi:10.1111/1467-9477.12242 · Cited by 23
Nash, K. (2023) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2023.2271235 · Cited by 26
McLaughlin, B. (2016) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000176 · Cited by 35
More a Symptom Than a Cause: Polarization and Partisan News Media in America
Arceneaux, K., & Johnson, M. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316287002.016 · Cited by 24
The political world within: how citizens process and experience political narratives
McLaughlin, B., Velez, J. A., & Dunn, J. A. (2019) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2019.1597635 · Cited by 30
Landreville, K., & Niles, C. (2019) · Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media · doi:10.1080/08838151.2019.1622339 · Cited by 20
Diversionary cheap talk: economic conditions and US foreign policy rhetoric, 1945-2010
Carter, E. B. (2019) · International Interactions · doi:10.1080/03050629.2020.1688319 · Cited by 23
Partisanship, sexuality, and perceptions of candidates
Loepp, E. D., & Redman, S. M. (2020) · Journal of Elections Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2019.1711099 · Cited by 26
Don’t @ Me: Experimentally Reducing Partisan Incivility on Twitter
Munger, K. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2020.14 · Cited by 31
Perspective-Taking to Reduce Affective Polarization on Social Media
Saveski, M., Gillani, N., Yuan, A., Vijayaraghavan, P., & Roy, D. (2022) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v16i1.19343 · Cited by 28
Political isolation in America
Lee, B., & Bearman, P. (2020) · Network Science · doi:10.1017/nws.2020.9 · Cited by 26
Divided by the jab: Affective polarisation based on COVID vaccination status
Wagner, M., & Eberl, J.-M. (2025) · Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties · doi:10.1080/17457289.2024.2352449 · Cited by 24
The effects of scandalization in political news messages on political trust and message evaluation
Graßl, P., Schaap, G., Spagnuolo, F., & Riet, J. V. ‘. (2019) · Journalism · doi:10.1177/1464884919879582 · Cited by 25
Separated by Politics? Disentangling the Dimensions of Discrimination
Theodoridis, A. G., Goggin, S. N., & Deichert, M. (2022) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-022-09809-y · Cited by 25
Introduction: The New Polarization in Latin America
Sarsfield, R., Moncagatta, P., & Roberts, K. M. (2024) · Latin American Politics and Society · doi:10.1017/lap.2024.15 · Cited by 28
Baldassarri, D., & de Jong, J. (2025) · Sociological Science · doi:10.15195/v12.a18 · Cited by 24
Do Justices Defend the Speech They Hate?
Epstein, L., Parker, C. M., & Segal, J. A. (2018) · Journal of Law and Courts · doi:10.1086/697118 · Cited by 28
How Ambient Cues Facilitate Political Segregation
Motyl, M. S., Prims, J., & Iyer, R. (2019) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219875141 · Cited by 23
Hameleers, M. (2018) · Acta Politica · doi:10.1057/s41269-018-0119-8 · Cited by 23
Tweeting Along Partisan Lines: Identity-Motivated Elaboration and Presidential Debates
Jennings, F. J., Bramlett, J. C., McKinney, M. S., & Hardy, M. M. (2020) · Social Media + Society · doi:10.1177/2056305120965518 · Cited by 25
Resentment Is Like Drinking Poison? The Heterogeneous Health Effects of Affective Polarization
Nelson, M. H. (2022) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/00221465221075311 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Iyengar, S., Sood, G., & Lelkes, Y.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Princeton University (US)
- ORCID
- Iyengar, Shanto
- Venue
- Public Opinion Quarterly
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2012-09-01
- Volume
- 76
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 405-431
- ISSN
- 0033-362X (ISSN-L)
- 1537-5331
- OpenAlex
- W2124751389
- Semantic Scholar
- 1932d6438e6b18d4a97fb3c88c0463fc08b12879
- Cited by
- 2,996
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 465 · 2025: 445 · 2024: 388 · 2023: 275 · 2022: 299 · 2021: 273 · 2020: 247 · 2019: 162 · 2018: 170 · 2017: 108 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 149.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Public Opinion Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Media Influence and Politics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- political polarization, partisan affect, social distance, partisanship, ideology, policy attitudes, outgroup hostility, political campaigns, partisan sorting, American public opinion
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
