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Cited by 110Electric Vehicles and InfrastructureAdvanced Battery Technologies ResearchElectric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies

Electric Vehicles Under Low Temperatures: A Review on Battery Performance, Charging Needs, and Power Grid Impacts

Open access
Senol, Murat, Bayram, I. Safak, Naderi, Yahya, Galloway, Stuart·2023·IEEE Access
DOI 10.1109/access.2023.3268615
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Abstract

Electric vehicles (EVs) are gaining mainstream adoption as more countries introduce net-zero carbon targets for the near future. Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, the most commonly used energy storage technology in EVs, are temperature sensitive, and their performance degradates at low operating temperatures due to increased internal resistance. The existing literature on EV-power grid studies assumes that EVs are used under “perfect temperatures" (e.g. 21 Celsius) and temperature-related issues are ignored. In addition, most of the countries/regions with high EV penetration (e.g. Norway, Canada, northern parts of the US and China, etc.) experience harsh cold months, making it extremely critical to understand EV performance and consequently their impacts on the electrical power networks. In this paper, we present a systematic review of the literature that considers the combined investigation of Li-ion battery technology and power networks, with a focus on their operation under suboptimal weather conditions. More specifically, we review: (i) the impact of low temperatures on the electrochemical performance of EV batteries in parking, charging and driving modes, (ii) the challenges experienced by EVs during charging and associated performance degradation, and (iii) the additional impacts of EV charging on the power networks. Our analysis shows that there are serious research gaps in literature and industry applications, which may hinder mass EV adoption and cause delays in charging station roll-out.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review synthesizes literature on how low temperatures degrade Li-ion EV battery performance, prolong charging, and intensify power-grid impacts such as harmonics, voltage issues, and peak demand. It argues that existing EV-grid studies largely assume optimal temperatures, leaving serious research gaps for cold-climate EV adoption and charging infrastructure planning.

Key findings

  • Low temperatures reduce usable battery energy and power: usable energy of Li-ion cells at −10°C is 75% of the 25°C value for the same 50 A current, and capacity is maximum around 21°C but significantly reduces below 0°C.
  • Fast charging is severely affected: a 50 kW fast charger’s power conversion efficiency is 93% at 25°C versus 39% at −25°C; in Norway, 50 kW stations delivered an average 30.2 kW, with sessions averaging 20.5 minutes and 9.6 kWh, and summer–winter average charging power differed by 6.63 kW.
  • Driving range drops sharply: the Nissan Leaf falls from 161 km at 25°C to 49 km at −25°C, and the Mitsubishi i-MiEV from 128 km at 21°C to 42 km at −25°C; Canadian studies report a 1.1 km range decrease per 1°C reduction and a 20% decrease at −7°C versus 20°C.
  • Grid impacts intensify in cold: harmonics increase as charging power falls at low temperatures, with THD exceeding standards at subzero temperatures; one UK simulation found an additional 630 MW generation needed to charge 11 million EVs in winter versus optimal temperatures, with carbon intensity potentially rising 25% on low-wind days.

Methods

  • Systematic literature review combining Li-ion battery technology and power-network studies, focused on EV operation under suboptimal weather conditions.
  • Reviews three areas: battery electrochemical performance in parking, charging, and driving modes; EV charging challenges and degradation; and additional power-grid impacts of EV charging.
  • Synthesizes empirical studies, battery ageing and charging models, power-quality standards, and case data from cold-climate regions including Norway, Sweden, Canada, and the UK; no new primary experiments are reported.

Limitations

  • The paper states serious research gaps in literature and industry applications, including that harmonics under low temperatures are an “untouched area” and that no research was found to accurately model EV charger circuit data with probabilistic perspectives.
  • It states battery modelling is challenging due to complex electrochemical processes, non-linear behaviour, high variability among battery types, and limited data availability.
  • The review primarily focuses on low temperatures because EV penetration is higher in cold-climate countries; high-temperature effects are noted as similar but not the main scope. Evident from the text: as a review, its findings depend on cited secondary studies and may not generalize beyond the reviewed regions and conditions.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1109/access.2023.3268615

Cites

202 of 202 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 319 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    There are serious research gaps in literature and industry applications on EV performance under low temperatures.

    “Our analysis shows that there are serious research gaps in literature and industry applications”
    • Also stated in: § C. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS · hedged
      “The research gap between existing studies and actual impacts could be severe”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Most countries/regions with high EV penetration experience harsh cold months.

    “In addition, most of the countries/regions with high EV penetration (e.g.Norway, Canada, northern parts of the US and China, etc.) experience harsh cold months, making it extremely critical to understand EV performance and consequently their impacts on the electrical power networks.”
    • Also stated in: § C. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS · plain
      “The research gap between existing studies and actual impacts could be severe as the vast majority of the countries with high EV penetration are located in the Northern Hemisphere (e.g.China, Canada, Norway, and the UK) and have cold winter months.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The capacity loss is minimum between 20°C and 30°C.

    “It can be seen that the capacity loss is minimum between 20°C and 30°C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The degradation rate significantly increases in subzero temperatures.

    “It can be seen that the degradation rate significantly increases in subzero temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    At lower temperatures, the charging power significantly reduces when compared to mild weather (e.g., 20°C).

    “It can be observed that at lower temperatures, the charging power significantly reduces when compared to mild weather (e.g.20°C).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 103
  • May combine two claims. 99
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingown data

    Annual and winter temperature averages are very low in cities and countries with high EV penetration.

    “As shown in Figure 2, annual and winter temperature averages are very low in cities and countries with high EV penetration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Existing literature on EV-power grid studies assumes EVs operate under optimal temperatures (around 21°C) and ignores temperature-related issues.

    “The existing literature on EV-power grid studies assumes that EVs are used under “perfect temperatures” (e.g.21 Celsius) and temperature-related issues are ignored.”
    • Also stated in: § C. PROBLEM STATEMENT AND CONTRIBUTIONS · plain
      “On the other hand, existing literature assumes that EVs operate under optimal driving conditions, namely 21.5°C optimal temperature when they show their best performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Over the last decade, there has been a growing amount of literature on EV grid impact studies focusing on power quality, transmission congestion, and generation-side impacts.

    “Over the last decade, there has been a growing amount of literature on EV grid impact studies that focus on power quality (e.g.voltage, harmonics), transmission congestion, and generation-side impacts [24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Parking, charging and driving are EV operation modes that cause battery degradation.

    “Parking, charging and driving are EVs' operation modes that cause battery degradation, as shown in Figure 7.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Reaching 50% SoC takes about 21 minutes at 20°C, while achieving the same SoC is nearly 60 minutes at -5°C.

    “For instance, reaching 50% SoC takes about 21 minutes at 20°C, while achieving the same SoC is nearly 60 minutes at -5°C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    THD increases gradually and peaks during the final stage, while TDD decreases gradually and reaches its lowest level.

    “THD increases gradually and peaks during this time, while TDD decreases gradually and reaches its lowest level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    There is a gradual decrease in current during the final stage of charging, which occurs over 15 minutes as the battery reaches 77% to 100% of its SoC.

    “There is a gradual decrease in current during the final stage of charging, which occurs over 15 minutes as the battery reaches 77% to 100% of its SoC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between the identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90 degrees.

    “When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between the identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90°,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At the beginning of the charging process, THD peaks and then gradually falls as the current gradually increases, while TDD rises at a minimum.

    “At the beginning of the charging process, THD peaks and then gradually falls as the current gradually increases, while TDD rises at a minimum.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The current waveform is less distorted during the CC phase but more distorted during the CV phase.

    “The current waveform is less distorted during the CC phase but more distorted during the CV phase.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Harmonics increase with fast charging even more under low temperatures.

    “Harmonics increase with fast charging even more under low temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    EV charging at distribution level brought power quality issues such as harmonics, voltage drops, phase unbalances, overloading, and peak demand increase.

    “The impacts of EV charging at the distribution level brought power quality issues such as harmonics, voltage drops, and phase unbalances, as well as other problems, including overloading and peak demand increase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Low-temperature charging did not pose a big concern for Level 1 and Level 2 charging, with charging power decreasing after a few hours.

    “While this process did not pose a big concern for Level 1 and Level 2 charging (charging power decreased after a few hours), it caused severe problems for fast charging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Lithium plating became an important problem due to fast charging under low temperatures, which can cause permanent damage to battery electrodes and lead to reduced capacity, shortened lifespan, and safety concerns.

    “In addition, lithium plating was also becoming an important problem due to fast charging under low temperatures, which can cause permanent damage to the battery's electrodes and lead to reduced capacity, shortened lifespan, and even safety concerns.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Charging power dropped drastically from the beginning, prolonging charging time.

    “The charging power dropped drastically from the beginning, prolonging the charging time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The diffusion rates of the solid electrodes, the conductivity of the electrolyte, and the solid-electrolyte interphase layer (SEI) are reduced by lowering the temperature, resulting in increased internal resistance.

    “The diffusion rates of the solid electrodes, the conductivity of the electrolyte, and the solidelectrolyte interphase layer (SEI) are reduced by lowering the temperature, resulting in increased internal resistance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [52]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [53]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Fast chargers operate below their rated capacity under low temperatures.

    “as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    On-board chargers transfer less power and add weight to the EV, but battery heating is not a concern; off-board chargers maintain higher power and remove weight, but battery heating needs to be addressed.

    “On-board chargers transfer less power and add another weight to the EV, but the problem of battery heating is not a concern.In contrast, off-board chargers maintain higher power and remove weight on EVs, but the issue of battery heating needs to be addressed [14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [14]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Accelerated internal chemical reactions affect EV performance and safety.

    “As a result, accelerated internal chemical reactions affect EV performance and safety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low temperatures can impact battery safety, potentially reducing performance, overheating, and even battery failure.

    “Finally, low temperatures can also impact battery safety, potentially reducing performance, overheating, and even battery failure.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The peak hours could be shifted in winter.

    “The estimated EV demand could be higher in the winter months, the peak hours could be shifted, and additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Additional power quality issues could arise from fast chargers operating below their rated capacity.

    “additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Li-ion battery technologies have been the dominant energy storage technology for the EV market.

    “Li-ion battery technologies have been the dominant energy storage technology for the EV market.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [40]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [41]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [42]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The estimated EV demand could be higher in the winter months.

    “The estimated EV demand could be higher in the winter months, the peak hours could be shifted, and additional power quality issues could arise as fast chargers operate below their rated capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low temperatures can contribute to battery degradation and ageing, leading to a shorter lifespan and reduced overall performance.

    “At low temperatures, the battery's rate of degradation increases, leading to a shorter lifespan and reduced overall performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These research gaps may hinder mass EV adoption and cause delays in charging station roll-out.

    “which may hinder mass EV adoption and cause delays in charging station roll-out.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some issues associated with Li-ion batteries are likely to be intensified in regions with low temperatures, which is a significant factor affecting the performance of EV batteries.

    “Moreover, some of these issues are likely to be intensified in regions with low temperatures, which is another significant factor affecting the performance of EV batteries [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Low operating temperatures trigger an increase in the battery's internal resistance, making it more difficult for lithium ions to move through the electrolyte.

    “Secondly, low operating temperatures trigger an increase in the battery's internal resistance, making it more difficult for the lithium ions to move through the electrolyte.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Range anxiety could be boosted in winter months, negatively impacting customer confidence in EVs.

    “Last but not least, range anxiety could be boosted in winter months, negatively impacting customer confidence in EVs [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Battery capacity is at its maximum when the temperature is around 21°C, and the capacity significantly reduces when the temperature goes below 0°C.

    “According to [55], the battery capacity is at its maximum when the temperature is around 21°C, and the capacity significantly reduces when the temperature goes below 0°C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A standard Tesla Model 3 with 60 kWh battery can fully charge in over 20 hours of slow charging, whereas fast charging (e.g. 50 kW) takes about 1 hour under optimum temperatures.

    “This battery can fully charge in over 20 hours of slow charging, whereas it only takes about 1 hour of fast charging (e.g.50 kW) under the optimum temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fast charging, trickle charging, pulse charging, smart charging and temperature control are used to reduce battery degradation and charging time.

    “Various charging methods, namely fast charging, trickle charging, pulse charging, smart charging and temperature control are used to reduce battery degradation and charging time [80], [100].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [80]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [100]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Compared with other systems, like fluid handling, air flow control requires only basic equipment and a small amount of real estate.

    “Compared with other systems, like fluid handling, the flow control requires only basic equipment and a small amount of real estate [110].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [110]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For a 1.5 Ah cell, the temperature reliance of the cycle capacity loss is established empirically per Ah and is normalised by multiplying by 1.5 Ah/cycle.

    “For a 1.5 Ah cell, the temperature reliance of the L cycle is established empirically per Ah in [98]; this is normalised by multiplying by 1.5 Ah/cycle [99].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [98]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [99]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisecitation

    Battery degradation leads to increasing internal resistance.

    “Battery degradation leads to capacity loss, decreasing range and internal resistance, increasing energy-power losses and overheating [66].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [66]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Battery ageing has two major consequences: increased resistance and capacity loss.

    “There are two major consequences of battery ageing: increased resistance and capacity loss [83].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [83]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cells held at 0% SoC have the best capacity retention and the most negligible temperature dependence for the one year studied.

    “Cells held at 0% SoC have the best capacity retention and the most negligible temperature dependence for the one year studied, while cells maintained at 100% SoC do not indicate the fastest capacity reduction, but they produce internal short circuits when the temperature is above 40°C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [91]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Advanced battery thermal management can be achieved by battery thermal management systems (BTMS).

    “This can be achieved by battery thermal management systems (BTMS) [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The BTMS is designed to maintain battery temperatures within a completely EV operational envelope, within a temperature operating range that is closer to ideal (15°C and 35°C).

    “The BTMS is designed to maintain battery temperatures within a completely EV operational envelope, within a temperature operating range that is closer to ideal (15°C and 35°C) [64].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Understanding battery degradation behaviour under varying temperatures requires developing degradation modelling methods for batteries.

    “Understanding battery degradation behaviour under varying temperatures requires developing degradation modelling methods for batteries.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low temperatures make battery modelling and analyzing battery behaviour more challenging and lead to complex EV management systems.

    “Therefore, low temperatures make battery modelling and analyzing battery behaviour more challenging and lead to complex EV management systems [28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The significance of BTMS in EVs arises from the adverse effects of low temperatures on battery electrochemical properties and performance, which consequently affect the vehicle's overall performance.

    “The significance of BTMS in EVs arises from the adverse effects of low temperatures on battery electrochemical properties and performance, which consequently affect the vehicle's overall performance, as can be seen in Table 2.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Most operational challenges that EVs experience under low temperatures are associated with thermal impacts on the EV battery.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Several modelling techniques have been used for low temperatures, including general heat rejection equation, one-dimensional prediction of battery cell temperature, experimental data with different temperature and discharge rates, and combination of heat generation equations and chemical reactions.

    “General heat rejection equation [103], prediction of the temperature in the battery cell with one-dimensional modelling [104], using experimental data with different temperature and discharge rates [105], with the combination of heat generation equations and chemical reactions on the battery [106] are some thermal modelling methods as the preparation of battery thermal management systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [103]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [104]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [105]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Internal cell parameters can be measured directly or using an equivalent circuit-based model with battery modelling.

    “These parameters can be measured directly or using an equivalent circuit-based model with battery modelling [85].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [85]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Higher polarization causes a Li-ion battery to take longer to complete its diffusion, reducing battery power capacity.

    “The higher the polarization, the longer the Li-ion battery takes to complete its diffusion, causing the reduction of the battery power capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Arrhenius model is not successful in providing detailed information about the battery's internal structure, and molecular-level degradation processes are still lacking.

    “In contrast, it is not successful in providing detailed information about the battery's internal structure, and molecular-level degradation processes are still lacking [73], [74].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [73]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [74]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low temperatures lead to a reduction of diffusion rate and intercalation.

    “Low temperatures not only lead to a reduction of diffusion rate and intercalation, but also grows the lithium dendrite that might cause lithium plating [65].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [65]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Low temperatures decrease power when operating an EV, leading to a reduction of driving range.

    “a potential problem that can arise is a decrease in power when operating an EV under low temperatures, which can lead to a reduction of driving range.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A decline in cut-off voltage achieves a lesser capacity, but there is no noticeable reduction in charging time or degradation.

    “A lesser capacity is achieved in the latter, but there is no noticeable reduction in charging time or degradation [93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Batteries with increased power capabilities require lower diffusion time/higher diffusion rates, lower internal resistance, and lower activation energies.

    “Lower diffusion time/higher diffusion rates, lower internal resistance, and lower activation energies are required for batteries with increased power capabilities [52], [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [52]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [61]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Thermal runaway can cause the battery to overheat.

    “Safety measures need to be implemented to prevent thermal runaway, which can cause the battery to overheat and increasing the internal pressure is critical for battery safety [101].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [101]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The current tendency in thermal management is to aim to improve battery pack architecture to get a longer distance range or faster charging times.

    “Nevertheless, the current tendency in thermal management is to aim to improve battery pack architecture to get a longer distance range or faster charging times [109].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [109]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The ability of a battery to deliver high current over short periods of time (a few seconds) is directly related to its power capabilities.

    “The ability of the battery to deliver high current over short periods of time (a few seconds) is directly related to its power capabilities [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The semi-empirical model is reliable and effective in both operating ranges covered by the experimental data and other operating scenarios.

    “Therefore, the model is reliable and effective in both operating ranges covered by the experimental data and other operating scenarios.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EVs must comply with safety standards and regulations that vary from country to country, impacting the vehicle's design, which consists of battery cells.

    “EVs must comply with safety standards and regulations that vary from country to country, impacting the vehicle's design, which consists of battery cells [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Li-ion batteries experience battery life degradation due to various reasons including charging-discharging cycles, high current rates, and operating under excessively high or low temperatures.

    “Li-ion batteries experience battery life degradation due to various reasons including charging-discharging cycles, high current rates, and operating under excessively high or low temperatures [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Thermal runaway may cause the battery to be destroyed and increase the likelihood of fire and explosion, resulting in potentially fatal consequences.

    “This may cause the battery to be destroyed and increase the likelihood of fire and explosion, resulting in potentially fatal consequences [101].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [101]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The power conversion efficiency of a 50 kW fast charger is 93% at 25°C, compared to 39% at -25°C as a result of BMSs requesting reduced power levels at lower temperatures.

    “The power conversion efficiency of a 50 kW fast charger is 93% at 25°C, compared to 39% at -25°C as a result of BMSs requesting reduced power levels at lower temperatures [132].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Internal heating is unaffected by the shape of the batteries.

    “This heating method is unaffected by the shape of the batteries [119].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [119]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Internal heating can achieve a higher rate of temperature rise in a shorter time than external heating, minimizing the effects of thermal ageing.

    “As opposed to the widely used external heating, internal heating can achieve a higher rate of temperature rise in a shorter time, minimizing the effects of thermal ageing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [121]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Battery preheating contributes to regenerative braking, so traction consumption decreases slightly with preheating.

    “Since battery preheating contributes to regenerative braking, traction consumption decreases slightly with preheating.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The average charging power difference between summer and winter in Norway was 6.63 kW because the charging current is limited and depends on battery temperature during fast charging.

    “In addition, the average charging power difference between summer and winter was also found to be 6.63 kW because the charging current is limited and depends on the battery temperature during fast charging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Liquid heating control systems are more effective than air heating control systems because liquid-based methods have higher thermal conductivity and higher convective heat transfer rates.

    “Liquid heating control systems are more effective than air heating control systems because liquid-based methods have higher thermal conductivity and higher convective heat transfer rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [115]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A measurement in Sweden found that when ambient temperature is below 10°C, charging current is 25 A, while above 20°C, charging current is 125 A.

    “A measurement conducted in Sweden [134] found that when the ambient temperature is below 10°C, the charging current is 25 A, while the ambient temperature is above 20°C, the charging current is 125 A.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low temperatures can significantly decrease EV driving range due to reduced Li-ion battery capacity and increased HVAC consumption.

    “Low temperatures can significantly decrease the driving range of EVs due to the reduced capacity of the Li-ion battery and increased consumption HVAC system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With preheating, energy supplied from the battery decreased by 10.4% for urban and 4.7% for highway; total energy consumption increased by 33% and 13%, respectively.

    “Finally, energy supplied from the battery with preheating decreased by 10.4% for urban and 4.7% for highways; the total energy consumption increased by 33% and 13%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Internal heating has not become as widespread and developed as external heating and is still at the laboratory stage.

    “This heating method, which has not become as widespread and developed as external heating, is still at the laboratory stage [108].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [108]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The best cooling performance was achieved with fans located at the top of the pack.

    “The best cooling performance was achieved with fans located at the top of the pack, according to results presented by [111].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Preheating and internal heaters are often preferred as they can provide more targeted and efficient heating.

    “Preheating and internal heaters are often preferred as they can provide more targeted and efficient heating.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Energy stored in the battery, intended primarily for driving, is used to warm the cabin, decreasing energy available for driving and shortening vehicle range.

    “This decreases the amount of energy that can be used for driving, thereby shortening the vehicle's range of operation [25], [141].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [25]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [141]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: Energy stored in an EV battery is intended primarily for driving.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With lower temperatures, the possibility of lithium plating during charging increases considerably, reducing battery capacity.

    “With lower temperatures, the possibility of lithium plating during charging increases considerably, reducing battery capacity [121], [131].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [121]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [131]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to EVs' high-efficiency drivetrain, little waste heat is generated, necessitating heating systems for thermal comfort inside cabins.

    “However, due to EVs' high-efficiency drivetrain, little waste is generated, necessitating the provision of heating systems for providing thermal comfort inside cabins [140].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [140]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    After the first three hours, minor differences in charging are observed across temperatures.

    “After this period, minor differences are observed, as shown in Figure 12.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    To ensure thermal comfort inside an EV cabin during low temperatures, cabin heating requirements increase, rapidly depleting energy from the batteries.

    “To ensure thermal comfort inside an EV cabin during low temperatures, cabin heating requirements are increased, which results in rapidly depleting energy from the batteries [26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In the last part of the charging session, the charging power gradually decreases.

    “In the last part of the charging session, the charging power gradually decreases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Norway, delivered charging power from 50 kW peak fast-charging stations is reduced to 30.2 kW, and sessions lasted on average 20.5 minutes and supplied 9.6 kWh of energy.

    “It has been noted that the delivered charging power is reduced to 30.2 kW from 50 kW peak power fast-charging stations, and these sessions lasted on average 20.5 minutes and supplied 9.6 kWh of energy.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [133]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The best-case correlation between EV energy demand and temperature is y = -2.76 × T + 47.5, with HVAC in recirculation mode and tests in a closed garage.

    “The best-case correlation between EV demand and temperature is found as follows:”
    • Also stated in: § B. ADDITIONAL DEMAND FOR EV CABIN THERMAL COMFORT · plain
      “y = -2.76× T + 47.5.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [143]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The worst-case correlation between ambient temperature and energy demand assumes both HVAC and AC are actively engaged, based on outdoor winter tests.

    “According to [26], the worst-case correlation scenario between ambient temperature and energy demand assumes that both HVAC and AC are actively engaged.In addition, this test was conducted outside in winter weather conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Warming up Li-ion batteries for EVs under low-temperature conditions improves their performance and life.

    “One of the most fundamental ways to improve the performance and life of Li-ion batteries for EVs under low-temperature conditions is to warm up the batteries [119], [120].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [119]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [120]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Studies often simplify the correlation between ambient temperature and energy demand to a linear correlation.

    “A number of studies present the correlation between the ambient temperature and the energy demand, which is often simplified to a linear correlation [142].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [142]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    360-V electrical heaters heat the coolant water circuit that circulates the battery pack of the Chevrolet Volt.

    “For instance, 360-V electrical heaters heat the coolant water circuit that circulates the battery pack of the Chevrolet Volt [116].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [116]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Battery discharging current is unrestricted under low temperatures while charging battery current is reduced to avoid undesirable effects if the ambient temperature drops below specific limits.

    “Battery discharging current is unrestricted under low temperatures while charging battery current is reduced to avoid undesirable effects if the ambient temperature drops below specific limits, showing the importance of low temperatures for charging EVs [127].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [127]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preheating can help improve the battery's performance and extend its lifespan in cold weather conditions.

    “This can help to improve the battery's performance and extend its lifespan in cold weather conditions [28], [122].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [122]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Preheating takes tens of minutes, causing EV drivers to wait to use their vehicles.

    “However, preheating takes tens of minutes, causing EV drivers to wait to use their vehicles [122].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For an EV driver using slow charging for a few hours, there is no significant difference in the charging pattern because charging power is much lower than fast charging and most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) rates.

    “For an EV driver who wants to use slow charging for a few hours, it is observed that there is no significant difference in the charging pattern since the charging power is much lower than the fast charging, and most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) charging rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) charging rates.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Low temperatures affect the thermal comfort of an EV cabin as well as battery performance and longevity.

    “Low temperatures not only impact battery performance and longevity but also affect the thermal comfort of an EV cabin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90°, implying that the amplitudes will add.

    “When EVs are linked to the same feeder, the average difference between the identical harmonic order phase angles is less than 90°, implying that the amplitudes will add.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The harmonic phase angle behaviour observed for two EVs during fast charging is representative of EV fleets connected to the same feeder.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    IEC 61000-3-2 and IEC 61000-3-4 are the standards that apply to EV chargers, and they set limitations on harmonic emissions that EV chargers inject into the grid.

    “IEC 61000-3-2 [183], and IEC 61000-3-4 [184] are the standards that apply to EV chargers, and they set limitations on harmonic emissions that EV chargers inject into the grid.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [183]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [184]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Many power electronic devices connected to the grid increase the harmonic emissions in the system.

    “Many power electronic devices connected to the grid increase the harmonic emissions in the system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In cold climates, the battery is heated firstly by trickle charging, and the battery cells are brought to 20-25°C to make them ready to charge efficiently.

    “Therefore, in cold climates, the battery is heated firstly by trickle charging, and the battery cells are brought to 20-25°C to make them ready to charge efficiently.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [182]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: These batteries cannot be charged effectively under low or high temperatures.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Harmonic cancellation is more likely at higher harmonic orders, resulting in THD I reduction.

    “Harmonic cancellation is more likely at higher harmonic orders, resulting in the THD I reduction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Power quality is a combination of current and voltage quality, and both current and voltage disturbances adversely affect the grid and its components.

    “Power quality is a combination of current and voltage quality, and both current and voltage disturbances adversely affect the grid and its components [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Harmonic cancellation occurs more frequently at higher harmonic orders, which can explain the relatively minor THD_I decrease observed in different studies.

    “There has also been evidence to suggest that harmonic cancellation occurs more frequently at higher harmonic orders, which can explain the relatively minor THD I decrease observed in different studies [168].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [168]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Wind generators and charging stations selected in appropriate size and location can reduce harmonics by cancelling their harmonics.

    “In contrast, wind generators and charging stations selected in the appropriate size and location can reduce harmonics by cancelling their harmonics [166].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The harmonics were slightly decreased because the amplitudes were not perfectly summed up in the two EVs.

    “The harmonics were slightly decreased because the amplitudes were not perfectly summed up in the two EVs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Level 2 chargers deliver more power and are typically located in public facilities.

    “Level 2 chargers deliver more power and are typically located in public facilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A single EV is equal to approximately 1.5 computers and 10 compact fluorescent lamps in terms of their impact on harmonics.

    “A single EV is equal to approximately 1.5 computers and 10 compact fluorescent lamps in terms of their impact on harmonics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [149]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Occasional problems might arise due to resonances since they amplify the harmonics.

    “However, occasional problems might arise due to resonances since they amplify the harmonics [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Power quality issues impact the load profile of consumers and equipment, causing overheating of transformers, cables, and motors, malfunction of smart metering and sensitive control equipment, mechanical damage to nearby motors, and performance impacts on sensitive instruments.

    “The impact of these issues is mainly reflected in the load profile of consumers and equipment (overheating of transformers, cables, and motors, malfunction of smart metering devices and the sensitive control equipment, mechanical damage to electrical motors nearby, and impacting the performance of other sensitive control and monitoring instruments) in the grid.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The unbalance in distribution phases leads to energy losses and increases the heating of network equipment.

    “The unbalance in distribution phases leads to energy losses and increases the heating of network equipment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Non-linear loads, such as EV chargers, computers, adjustable speed drives and air conditioners, produce harmonics.

    “Non-linear loads, such as EV chargers, computers, adjustable speed drives and air conditioners, produce harmonics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Harmonic distortion is a type of electric network pollution that can become problematic if the total harmonic currents exceed certain thresholds decided by industry standards.

    “Harmonic distortion is a type of electric network pollution that can become problematic if the total harmonic currents exceed certain thresholds decided by industry standards [163].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [163]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In modern power systems, there is a problem of nonlinearity in terms of generation and demand.

    “In modern power systems, there is a problem of nonlinearity in terms of generation and demand [159], [160].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [159]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [160]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to simulation results with one and two EVs, both TDD values were close by approximately 12%.

    “According to the simulation results with one and two EVs, both TDD values were close by approximately 12%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    If the load is dominantly capacitive, the amount of harmonic distortion may increase.

    “if the load is dominantly capacitive, the amount of harmonic distortion may also increase”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [163]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In real-world engineering applications, THD is usually calculated first and compared to the limits; if there is a problem, TDD is calculated.

    “In real-world engineering applications, THD is usually calculated first and compared to the limits.If there is a problem, TDD is calculated [162].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Audible noise occurs in the presence of high harmonic emissions.

    “In addition, audible noise occurs in the presence of high harmonic emissions [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Wind generators and EVs produce common harmonic current sources even at low EV penetration, significantly affecting the electricity grid.

    “According to [166], wind generators and EVs produce common harmonic current sources even at low EV penetration, significantly affecting the electricity grid.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [166]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Voltage distortion occurs throughout the network due to the flow of distorted currents.

    “Voltage distortion occurs throughout the network due to the flow of distorted currents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The charging of the Li-ion battery is stopped when it is nearly fully charged, preventing the battery from becoming overcharged.

    “The charging of the Li-ion battery is stopped when it is nearly fully charged, preventing the battery from becoming overcharged [182].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [182]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cancellation becomes more likely as the number of users and appliances rises.

    “According to authors examining low voltage nonlinear loads in Ref. [175], cancellation becomes more likely as the number of users and appliances rises.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [175]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Harmonic distortions due to different EVSE technology and rated capacity may be different.

    “The harmonic distortions due to different EVSE technology and the rated capacity may also be different.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    In the case of resonance, the distortion rises, leading to higher distortion levels in the nodes moving away from the harmonic source.

    “In the case of resonance, the distortion rises, leading to higher distortion levels in the nodes moving away from the harmonic source.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The second set of studies focuses on regional/national impacts on power grid reliability/stability and peak generation increase.

    “The second set of studies focuses on regional/national impacts on power grid reliability/stability and peak generation increase [152], [153].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [152]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [153]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Vehicles charged at home can increase the neutral-ground voltage, leading to stray voltage problems.

    “However, vehicles charged at home can increase the neutralground voltage, leading to stray voltage problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies investigate different EVSE penetration scenarios and estimate additional electrical demand needed to charge EVs in a region.

    “The latter, in contrast, investigates different EVSE penetration scenarios and estimates additional electrical demand needed to charge EVs in a region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [152]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [153]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Domestic charging has a negligible harmonic impact on a power grid in the foreseeable future up to 2022.

    “According to this study, domestic charging has a negligible harmonic impact on a power grid in the foreseeable future (up to 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [149]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When a considerable number of EVs are charged via Level 3 charging simultaneously, the line voltage and frequency deviate, the harmonics injected into the line current increase, and the peak load on the grid rises.

    “When a considerable number of EVs are charged via Level 3 charging simultaneously, the line voltage and frequency deviate, the harmonics injected into the line current increase, and the peak load on the grid rises [173], [174].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [173]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [174]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) charging, the standard used during fast charging, affects the harmonics level.

    “In addition to the factors discussed above, constant current (CC) and constant voltage (CV) charging, the standard used during fast charging, affects the harmonics level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The first group of studies examines EV charging impacts at the distribution level and primarily evaluates power quality impacts: harmonics, substation overloading, voltage drops, and phase unbalances.

    “The first group of studies examine the impacts of EV charging at the distribution level and primarily evaluates the impacts on power quality, namely harmonics, substation overloading, voltage drops, and phase unbalances [16], [148]- [150].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [16]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [148]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [149]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [150]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    V2G appears as critical in harmonic distortion as charging, although THD V does not exceed IEEE standards at low voltage levels (THD V <5%).

    “Although THD V does not exceed IEEE standards at low voltage levels (THD V <5%), V2G appears as critical in harmonic distortion as charging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Transformers might be overloaded with increasing demand for additional EV power in urban areas where load density is high.

    “For example, transformers might be overloaded with increasing demand for additional EV power in urban areas where load density is high.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    With a variety of EV chargers from different manufacturers, there will likely be a variety of harmonic patterns.

    “With a variety of EV chargers from different manufacturers, there will likely be a variety of harmonic patterns.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Beyond the level of SoC charged with the CC phase, CV is used until the battery is fully charged.

    “Beyond the level of SoC charged with the CC phase, CV is used until the battery is fully charged [180].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [180]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Since TDD and I_L are rarely needed, the concept of THD is widely used.

    “Since TDD and I L are rarely needed, the concept of THD is widely used.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Variability of harmonic patterns from different manufacturers may result in significant harmonic cancellation.

    “the variability of the patterns may result in significant harmonic cancellation [174]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [174]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Harmonic distortion plays a crucial role in terms of power quality due to the growth of the number of EVSEs.

    “Harmonic distortion plays a crucial role in terms of power quality due to the growth of the number of EVSEs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Level 3 chargers, the fastest charging method, are located on commercial charging applications with a dedicated transformer.

    “Level 3 chargers, the fastest charging method, are located on commercial charging applications with a dedicated transformer [171].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [171]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Level 1 chargers are primarily supplied from domestic outlets.

    “Level 1 chargers are primarily supplied from domestic outlets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Transformers heat up due to additional losses caused by harmonic currents.

    “On the other hand, transformers heat up due to additional losses caused by harmonic currents [165].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [165]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In Level 1 charging, the 3rd harmonic had the highest harmonic magnitude.

    “In another study on Level 1 charging [163], it has been observed that the 3rd harmonic had the highest harmonic magnitude.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [163]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adding chargers from different manufacturers to the same distribution network will result in diverse harmonic patterns.

    “adding chargers from different manufacturers to the same distribution network will result in diverse harmonic patterns”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [174]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    4.7 million EVs are predicted in 2030 in the slowest decarbonization scenario ('Steady Progression'), while 11 million are predicted in the fastest scenario ('Leading the Way').

    “4.7 million EVs are predicted in 2030 in the slowest decarbonization scenario (”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The UK will have more than 7 million ultra-low emission vehicles by 2030, according to Reference [207].

    “Reference [207] estimates that the UK will have more than 7 million ultra-low emission vehicles by 2030.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [207]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The regional difference in energy demand for large collections of EVs potentially poses a risk to the operators if the charging infrastructure is not properly planned.

    “The regional difference in energy demand for large collections of EVs potentially poses a risk to the operators if the charging infrastructure is not properly planned.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In order to mitigate an overvoltage with one customer, an undervoltage is established for other consumers, or vice versa.

    “In order to mitigate an overvoltage with one customer, for example, an undervoltage is established for other consumers, or vice versa [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Reducing the feeder length by adding more transformers to the power network is one of the classical mitigation methods.

    “Reducing the feeder length by adding more transformers to the power network is one of the classical mitigation methods [198].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [198]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In contrast, the active components of the same devices cause these problems at low voltage levels.

    “In contrast, the active components of the same devices cause these problems at low voltage levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to EN 50160, the 10-minute rms values of voltage levels should be between 90 and 110% of the rated value.

    “According to the EN 50160 standard [187], the 10-minute rms values of voltage levels should be between 90 and 110% of the rated value (e.g.230V, 110V, etc.).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [187]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The power system cannot handle varying demands, and frequency deviations could lead to system stability issues when large collections of EV chargers switch on and off at the same time or in short time periods.

    “In this case, the power system cannot handle varying demands, and frequency deviations could lead to system stability issues.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Electric network generation and demand must be balanced in real-time; otherwise, the grid frequency deviates from its nominal value.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Most EVs are charged with standard single-phase AC sockets in the customers' houses.

    “According to this study, most EVs are charged with standard single-phase AC sockets in the customers' houses, and it is assumed that the EVs are connected to the distribution grid through the same point as the residence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [203]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The maximum acceptable voltage unbalance level can be up to 3% in some particular circumstances.

    “It can be up to 3% in some particular circumstances [187], [201].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [187]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [201]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The impacts of EV charging on power networks under 'perfect' (e.g. 21°C) weather conditions have been well-documented in the literature.

    “The impacts of EV charging on power networks under”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [214]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Increased penetration of EVs also has the potential to compensate for the load and grid problems caused by increased wind and solar energy production.

    “On the other hand, this increased penetration of EVs also has the potential to compensate for the load and grid problems caused by increased wind and solar energy production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In previous studies, the temperature was not generally considered, and the optimum temperature was assumed as the ambient temperature.

    “In those studies, the temperature was not generally considered, and the optimum temperature was assumed as the ambient temperature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Total annual energy demand from road transport due to transportation electrification is expected to be around 100 TWh for both scenarios.

    “Total annual energy demand from road transport due to transportation electrification is expected to be around 100 TWh for both scenarios.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    According to the IEC international standard, the THD value never surpasses 100% because the ratio denominator in equations (7) and (8) is the total rms value.

    “According to the IEC international standard, since the ratio denominator in equations ( 7) and ( 8) are the total rms value, the THD value never surpasses 100%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The presence of EVs and other traditional loads in electricity distribution networks creates an increased demand, which also causes voltage drops in the power grid.

    “The presence of EVs and other traditional loads in electricity distribution networks creates an increased demand, which also causes voltage drops in the power grid [193].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [193]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    31.1 million EVs will be on the roads worldwide in 2030, according to Deloitte's assumption.

    “According to Deloitte's assumption [208], 31.1 million EVs will be on the roads worldwide in the same year.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [208]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    National Grid in the UK estimates that EVs will create an additional 18 GW of demand by 2025, which represents an extra 30% of today's peak demand.

    “For instance, National Grid in the UK estimates that EVs will create an additional 18 GW of demand by 2025, which represents an extra 30% of today's peak demand [206].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    23 million EVs are predicted on the road by 2040 in the slowest scenario and 31 million in the fastest scenario.

    “The former and the latter predict 23 and 31 million EVs on the road by the year 2040.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A significant increase in EV sales compared to previous years was seen despite the pandemic, according to National Grid's future energy scenario outlined in 2021.

    “The National Grid's future energy scenario [206], outlined in 2021, a significant increase has been seen in EV sales compared to previous years despite the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The flexibility provided by smart charging and V2G can lead to shaving peak demand in the mid-scenario 'Consumer Transformation' up to 32 GW.

    “The flexibility provided by these two methods can lead to shaving peak demand in the mid-scenario”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [206]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Light flicker is a common side effect of fast voltage fluctuations.

    “Light flicker is a common side effect of fast voltage fluctuations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    With the increase in EV demand, there will also be a significant proliferation in the number of charging stations.

    “With the increase in EV demand, there will also be a significant proliferation in the number of charging stations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The voltage drop in phase-c reaches the lower limit of 0.9 per unit after 20% EV penetration, while phase-a and phase-b reach the same limit at 27% and 44% integration, respectively.

    “For instance, the voltage drop in phase-c reaches the lower limit of 0.9 per unit (pu) after penetration of 20%, while phasea and phase-b reach the same limit when integration is 27% and 44%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [203]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    At the distribution level, uncontrolled EV demand could increase the peak loading of transformers and lead to power quality issues (mainly voltage drops and phase unbalances).

    “At the distribution level, uncontrolled EV demand could increase the peak loading of transformers and lead to power quality issues (mainly voltage drops and phase unbalances).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [214]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    IEEE 519-2014 provides recommendations for voltage and current distortion limits for network operators and users, respectively.

    “In addition to these standards, IEEE 519-2014 [188] provide recommendations for voltage and current distortion limits for network operators and users, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [188]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reactive power control can be a possible solution for large installations connected to medium voltage networks or facilities directly connected to the distribution transformer.

    “Reactive power control can be a possible solution for large installations connected to medium voltage networks or facilities directly connected to the distribution transformer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The ideal frequency range is between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz for a 50 Hz system.

    “The ideal frequency range is between 49.5 and 50.5 Hz for a 50 Hz system [155].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Mainstream use of EVs will increase the peak loading of the power systems.

    “Mainstream use of EVs will increase the peak loading of the power systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    IEC 61000-4-7 and IEC 61000-4-30 standards handle harmonic measurements and instrumentation.

    “The IEC 61000-4-7 [185], and IEC 61000-4-30 [186] standards handle these harmonic measurements and instrumentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [185]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [186]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TDD was measured above 2% with 120 A (rated current), while TDD is around 1% regarded as good power quality for 400 V (rated voltage).

    “TDD was measured above 2% with 120 A (rated current), while TDD is around 1% regarded as good power quality for 400 V (rated voltage).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Keeping batteries in a warm environment like battery swapping stations could address issues faced by batteries under low temperatures while on standby or charging.

    “One possible solution to address the issues faced by batteries under low temperatures while on standby or charging could be to keep them in a warm environment, like battery swapping stations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    If large vehicle fleets are charged with fast charging during the day, EV load demand increases significantly.

    “However, if large vehicle fleets are charged with fast charging during the day, EV load demand increases significantly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Large vehicle fleets are charged overnight with the traditional charging method.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hybridization of supercapacitors with batteries could provide high power density and cushion temperature impact.

    “The hybridization of supercapacitors with batteries [224] could provide a high power density and cushion temperature impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [224]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    With the decrease in temperature, the charging power decreases, and the harmonics increase.

    “In contrast, with the decrease in temperature, the charging power decreases, and the harmonics increase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [215]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As the ambient temperature approaches the optimum temperature, the charging power increases, thus reducing the additional harmonics.

    “As the ambient temperature approaches the optimum temperature, the charging power increases, thus reducing the additional harmonics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [215]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Preheating can be done from ESSs rather than the charger, and long queues of EVs waiting to be charged can be prevented.

    “Therefore, preheating can be done from the ESSs rather than the charger, and long queues of EVs waiting to be charged can be prevented.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Technical solutions applied to overcome Li-ion battery problems under low temperatures may increase vehicle costs and make the vehicle unaffordable for purchase.

    “The technical solutions applied to overcome the problems experienced by the Li-ion battery under low temperatures may increase up to a certain point, increasing the vehicle costs and making the vehicle unaffordable for purchase [223].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [223]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Preheating of EVs in cold mornings could create additional morning peaks and increase existing ones.

    “Considering the fact that the morning commute time of most drivers could be within a short time frame, the preheating of EVs (as depicted in Figure 13) could create additional morning peaks and increase the existing ones.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Preheating of EVs, especially in cold mornings, will be required for EV owners who commute to work and school.
    • Rests on an assumption: The morning commute time of most drivers is within a short time frame.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The increase in peak demand, which increases significantly during winter evenings, may increase more by charging vehicle fleets simultaneously.

    “The increase in peak demand, which increases significantly during winter evenings, may also increase more by charging vehicle fleets simultaneously.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    EV owners may find it challenging to locate a suitable battery for their vehicle because of broad range of battery types and capacities differing even within same model in different years.

    “EV owners may find it challenging to locate a suitable battery for their vehicle as a broad range of battery types and capacities are available, which may differ even within the same EV model in different years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to Swiss national travel data, nearly 6% of daily trips are longer than 200 km and 2% are more than 400 km.

    “For instance, according to Swiss national travel data [218], nearly 6% of daily trips are longer than 200 km, and 2% are more than 400 km.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [218]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Utilisation of PVs and EVs can benefit both charging EVs with PV sources and filtering harmonics.

    “while the utilisation of PVs and EVs in [170] can benefit both charging EVs with PV sources and filtering the harmonics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [170]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Each replaceable battery must be ready to be used actively.

    “However, each replaceable battery must be ready to be used actively [234], [235].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [234]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [235]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A warm and cold battery with the same SoC (10%) charged up to 80% takes 25 and 62 minutes, respectively.

    “A warm and cold battery with the same SoC (10%) is charged up to 80%, and this process takes 25 and 62 minutes, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The two most important problems experienced by EV batteries under low temperatures are decrease in energy capacity and increase in tendency of degradation.

    “The two most important problems experienced by EV batteries under low temperatures are the decrease in their energy capacity and the increase in the tendency of degradation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Depending on daily trip statistics, high-mileage EVs may require additional recharge during the day, which may contribute to increase in peak demand.

    “In addition, depending on the daily trip statistics, highmileage EVs may require additional recharge during the day, which may contribute to an increase in peak demand.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Traditional techniques to limit or eliminate harmonics injected by EV chargers include correcting power factors and installing an active shunt filter for charging stations.

    “Traditional techniques to limit or eliminate harmonics injected by EV chargers include correcting power factors and installing an active shunt filter for charging stations [226], [227].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [226]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [227]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Distribution networks could experience additional voltage issues such as voltage dips and phase unbalances when charging EVs under low temperatures.

    “The surveyed literature further reflects that distribution networks could experience additional voltage issues, such as voltage dips and phase unbalances, when charging EVs under low temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Charging vehicles too often despite having sufficient SoC increases demand from EV fleets.

    “For example, charging vehicles too often despite having sufficient SoC also increases demand from EV fleets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    As EV fleets become more common, charging stations may have difficulty meeting EV demand.

    “As EV fleets become more common in the future, charging stations may have difficulty meeting EV demand.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
183 of 183

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Li-ion batteries are the most commonly used energy storage technology in EVs.

    “Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, the most commonly used energy storage technology in EVs, are temperature sensitive, and their performance degradates at low operating temperatures due to increased internal resistance.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EV penetration is much higher in cold-climate countries.

    “However, this study primarily focuses on the impacts of low temperatures because EV penetration is much higher in cold-climate countries, and we take a holistic review of the effects of low temperatures on EVs and power grids with case studies and mitigation strategies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many studies today assume that EVs operate under optimum temperature conditions.

    “Therefore, it is essential to investigate the effects of low temperatures on EV batteries, as many studies today assume that EVs operate under optimum temperature conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Li-ion batteries are the most expensive part of EVs.

    “Protecting and improving the life of Li-ion batteries is critical since they are the most expensive part of EVs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Varying temperature conditions make battery modelling more complicated.

    “Battery modelling is a challenging task, as mentioned previously, but the varying temperature conditions can make it even more complicated.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Li-ion batteries exhibit non-linear behaviour under different temperatures due to alternations in the electrochemical.

    “Li-ion batteries exhibit non-linear behaviour under different temperatures due to alternations in the electrochemical.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The formation and growth of the SEI layer on the anode is the primary ageing mechanism for calendar ageing.

    “The formation and growth of the SEI layer on the anode is the primary ageing mechanism for calendar ageing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The most significant factors affecting calendar ageing are parking duration, temperature, and SoC levels.

    “The most significant factors affecting calendar ageing are parking duration, temperature, and SoC levels.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The ageing that occurs while charging an EV battery is caused by cut-off voltage, current rate, and ambient temperature.

    “The ageing that occurs while charging an EV battery is caused by cut-off voltage, current rate, and ambient temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Higher charging rates lead to the deterioration of batteries more rapidly.

    “Higher charging rates (C-rates) lead to the deterioration of batteries more rapidly.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The deterioration trend and the effects of charging rate vary with each battery chemistry.

    “This deterioration trend and the effects of charging rate vary with each battery chemistry.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Both charging efficiency and energy available for charging are reduced under low temperatures.

    “Both charging efficiency and energy available for charging are reduced accordingly under low temperatures.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Lithium depositing as a metal onto anode surfaces (lithium plating) is a major problem during low temperatures and at higher charging rates.

    “Besides, lithium depositing as a metal onto anode surfaces (so-called lithium plating) is a major problem during low temperatures and at higher charging rates.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Discharge of the battery due to driving has an important place in battery ageing.

    “Discharge of the battery due to driving also has an important place in the battery's ageing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Battery degradation differs depending on the driver's behaviour and environmental conditions.

    “Since driving ageing is complex and challenging to control, battery degradation differs depending on the driver's behaviour and environmental conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The everyday usage of an EV is related to the battery's depth of discharge (DoD).

    “The everyday usage of an EV is related to the battery's depth of discharge (DoD).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The speed of travel and acceleration is associated with the battery's current discharge.

    “The speed of travel and acceleration is associated with the battery's current discharge, while the most significant environmental factor influencing battery degradation during a trip is the ambient temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The most significant environmental factor influencing battery degradation during a trip is ambient temperature.

    “The speed of travel and acceleration is associated with the battery's current discharge, while the most significant environmental factor influencing battery degradation during a trip is the ambient temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Compared to driving-related ageing, ageing during the charging process is less intense, but easier to control and mitigate.

    “Compared to driving-related ageing, ageing during the charging process is less intense, but it is easier to control and mitigate.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Optimum temperatures and low SoC can reduce parking battery degradation.

    “Optimum temperatures and low SoC can reduce parking battery degradation, while suitable temperatures and optimized charging methods minimize battery ageing for charging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Suitable temperatures and optimized charging methods minimize battery ageing for charging.

    “Optimum temperatures and low SoC can reduce parking battery degradation, while suitable temperatures and optimized charging methods minimize battery ageing for charging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Thermal runaway can occur for various reasons, such as mechanical (car crash) or electrical factors (overcharging and thermal abuse).

    “Thermal runaway can occur for various reasons, such as mechanical (car crash) or electrical factors (overcharging and thermal abuse).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    If aged batteries are used under extreme temperature conditions or are charged or discharged too quickly, it can worsen the thermal runaway problem.

    “If aged batteries are used under extreme temperature conditions or are charged or discharged too quickly, it can worsen the thermal runaway problem.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This can cause the battery to overcharge or overdischarge, leading to potentially dangerous situations.

    “This can cause the battery to overcharge or overdischarge, leading to potentially dangerous situations.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The battery's power level can be very unpredictable, mainly when using large amounts of current under low-temperature conditions.

    “In this situation, the powertrain control strategy must consider the battery's power level, which can be very unpredictable, mainly when using large amounts of current under low-temperature conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Accelerated chemical reactions can cause a safety hazard when the EV is being charged.

    “Accelerated chemical reactions can cause a safety hazard when the EV is being charged.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most operational challenges that EVs experience under low temperatures are associated with thermal impacts on the EV battery.

    “Most operational challenges that EVs experience under low temperatures are associated with thermal impacts on the EV battery.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Li-ion batteries under low temperatures have demonstrated a need for advanced model-based battery management strategies in EVs.

    “Li-ion batteries under low temperatures have demonstrated a need for advanced model-based battery management strategies in EVs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The most common technique that BTMS use to keep the batteries within the operational ranges under low temperatures is to heat the battery using an appropriate heating strategy.

    “The most common technique that BTMS use to keep the batteries within the operational ranges under low temperatures is to heat the battery using an appropriate heating strategy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Air, liquid and phase-change materials (PCMs) are common working mediums for heating and also cooling the battery.

    “Air, liquid and phase-change materials (PCMs) are common working mediums for heating and also cooling the battery.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Air heating/cooling systems are commonly used in EVs due to this battery pack configuration.

    “Air heating/cooling systems are commonly used in EVs due to this battery pack configuration.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The heating/cooling effect can be efficiently achieved using an airflow directed at the pack.

    “The heating/cooling effect can be efficiently achieved using an airflow directed at the pack.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EVs often use liquid heating.

    “As a result, EVs often use liquid heating.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The most significant issue with charging rapidly during low temperatures is lithium plating hazards.

    “The most significant issue with charging rapidly during low temperatures is lithium plating hazards.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Charging cold Li-ion batteries leads to metallizing of lithium plating on the anode, increasing the SEI and speeding degradation.

    “Charging cold Li-ion batteries leads to metallizing of lithium plating on the anode, increasing the SEI and speeding degradation.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    If the battery is cold, regenerative braking is restricted or turned off completely to prevent lithium plating, wasting significant energy.

    “Nevertheless, if the battery is cold, regenerative braking is restricted or even turned off completely to prevent lithium plating, which means a significant amount of energy is wasted.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Preheating the battery during driving requires additional energy from the battery to power the heating system, which can reduce the vehicle's driving range.

    “However, the main disadvantage of preheating the battery for an EV during driving is that it requires additional energy to be consumed from the battery to power the heating system, which can reduce the vehicle's driving range.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The BMS used in EVs limits current depending on battery temperature to avoid damaging battery cells.

    “The BMS used in EVs aims not to damage the battery cells by limiting the current depending on the battery temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) charging rates.

    “most EV batteries can accept Level 2 (hence Level 1) charging rates.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Energy stored in an EV battery is intended primarily for driving.

    “energy stored in the battery, which is intended to be used primarily for driving”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Fast charging rates of EVs must be independent of weather conditions to make EVs as competitive as ICEs.

    “To make EVs as competitive as ICEs, fast charging rates of EVs must be independent of weather conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    These batteries cannot be charged effectively under low or high temperatures.

    “These batteries cannot be charged effectively under low or high temperatures.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The harmonic phase angle behaviour observed for two EVs during fast charging is representative of EV fleets connected to the same feeder.

    “There was no synchronisation or random behaviour in the harmonic phase angles of the two EVs for fast charging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Electric network generation and demand must be balanced in real-time; otherwise, the grid frequency deviates from its nominal value.

    “Electric network generation and demand must be balanced in real-time; otherwise, the grid frequency deviates from its nominal value.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Ambient temperatures in Europe, the US, and China vary between -30°C and +40°C.

    “In Europe, the US, and China, ambient temperatures vary between -30°C to +40°C and their impacts on the EV batteries cannot be neglected.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Preheating of EVs, especially in cold mornings, will be required for EV owners who commute to work and school.

    “First, preheating of EVs, especially in cold mornings, will be required for EV owners who commute to work and school.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The morning commute time of most drivers is within a short time frame.

    “Considering the fact that the morning commute time of most drivers could be within a short time frame”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Preheating times depend on battery temperature.

    “The preheating times also depend on the battery temperature.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    EVs in closed and insulated parking garages have relatively shorter preheating periods than EVs parked outside.

    “For EVs located in closed and insulated parking garages, the preheating periods could be relatively shorter than the ones that are parked outside.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Large vehicle fleets are charged overnight with the traditional charging method.

    “Large vehicle fleets are charged overnight with the traditional charging method.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Due to the location of fast-charging stations, it is not possible to charge overnight like slow chargers.

    “Moreover, due to the location of the fast-charging stations, it is not possible to charge overnight like slow chargers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Public transport vehicles such as taxis, buses and delivery vehicles must comply with a specific schedule.

    “However, public transport vehicles such as taxis, buses and delivery vehicles must comply with a specific schedule.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The power of the charger determines the preheating time.

    “The power of the charger determines the preheating time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Heating energy obtained by preheating while driving is supplied from energy stored in the EV battery and EV braking energy.

    “The heating energy obtained by this method is supplied from the energy stored in the EV battery and the EV braking energy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Countries with serious net-zero targets experience long and cold winter months with average temperature around or below 0°C.

    “Since countries with serious netzero targets experience long and cold winter months (average temperature around or below 0°C), the associated impacts of EV charging require special attention to cushion negative impacts.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many studies in the literature have assumed that EVs operate at an optimum temperature of 21°C.

    “Many studies in the literature have assumed that EVs operate at an optimum temperature (21°C).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In reality, EVs are exposed to various temperature ranges while parking, charging and driving.

    “However, in reality, EVs are exposed to various temperature ranges while parking, charging and driving.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Battery swapping stations are not very common nowadays.

    “However, these stations are not very common nowadays.”
58 of 58

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Equally spaced storage states cannot include 80%

    Minor

    Eight equally spaced states spanning 0% to 100% would be about 14.29 percentage points apart, so 80% would not be one of them. The text nevertheless identifies cells stored at 80%.

  • Low-voltage IEEE THD limit is given as both 5% and 8%

    Minor

    The prose treats 5% as the IEEE voltage-THD limit at low voltage, but Table 9 lists 8% for buses at or below 1 kV. Its 5% limit applies to the higher, 1-69 kV category.

  • Stated THD denominators disagree with the equations

    Minor

    The standards discussion says the denominators in equations (7) and (8) are total rms values. The definitions accompanying those equations instead identify I1 and V1 as fundamental-frequency components.

  • External heating is described as both fast and slow

    Minor

    Table 3 calls active external heating fast, but the discussion of external heating says it takes a long time to heat the battery.

4 of 4

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 32

  1. 2023, Worldwide Roads on Course for 31 1 Million Electric Vehicle Milestone by 2030
  2. 2021, Future Energy Scenarios
  3. 2023, Charging Device Testing
  4. 2022, Renewable Energy Market Update for 2022 and 2023
  5. 2018, Road to zero
  6. 2021, Global EV Outlook 2021
  7. 2016, National transport plan 2018&#x2013;2029
  8. 2023, Fact Sheet President Biden Announces Steps to Drive American Leadership Forward on Clean Cars and Trucks
  9. meyers, 1969, Electric current-producing cell with anhydrous organic liquid electrolyte
  10. nicholas, 2018, Lessons learned on early electric vehicle fast-charging deployments, International Council for Clean Transportation Report, 10, 7
  11. 2023, Global Data Explorer
  12. hall, 2020, Electric vehicle charging guide for cities
  13. bernard, 2021, Electric vehicle capitals Accelerating electric mobility in a year of disruption 2021
  14. figenbaum, 1682, Charging into the future Analysis of fast charger usage
  15. 2023, Vehicle Charging System Testing
  16. 2023, Nissan Leaf Owner&#x2019;s Manual (Nissan Motor 2017)
  17. 2020, Documentation of IFE-TIMES-Norway V1
  18. 2019, American Automobile Association (AAA) Electric Vehicle Range Testing
  19. pesaran, 2001, Battery thermal management in EV and HEVs: Issues and solutions, Battery Man, 43, 34
  20. 2023, 2012 Chevrolet Volt Owner Manual
  21. 2023, Preconditioning and Climate Control
  22. 2010, EN 50160 Voltage characteristics of the electricity supplied by public distribution systems
  23. meyer, 2012, The impact of driving cycle and climate on electrical consumption & range of fully electric passenger vehicles, Proc EVS, 26, 11
  24. 2023, Temperature Tool for EV Range
  25. 10.1007/978-94-007-0635-4_2 · DOI
  26. letha, 2021, Interaction between charging infrastructure and the electricity grid
  27. lucas, 2017, Fast charging diversity impact on total harmonic distortion due to phase cancellation effect
  28. 2021, Electric Vehicle Charging Device Statistics
  29. 2023, Tesla model 3
  30. 2023, Best-Selling Plug-in Electric Vehicle Models Worldwide in 2020
  31. 2019, 2019 UK Greenhouse Gas Emissions Final Figures
  32. 2020, Tracking Transport 2020

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Senol, M., Bayram, I. S., Naderi, Y., & Galloway, S.
Affiliations
University of Strathclyde (GB)
ORCID
Venue
IEEE Access
Publisher
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Published
2023
Volume
11
Pages
39879-39912
ISSN
2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1109/access.2023.3268615
OpenAlex
W4366503914
Cited by
110
References
201
Citations by year
2026: 44 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 3
FWCI
7.99
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • IEEE Access (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Advanced Battery Technologies Research
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies
Keywords
electric vehicles, low-temperature operation, lithium-ion batteries, battery degradation, battery charging, charging stations, grid impact, cold climate, internal resistance, electric vehicle charging infrastructure

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

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