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Representation of Confidence Associated with a Decision by Neurons in the Parietal Cortex
Open accessAbstract
Decisive Monkeys: Decision-making is a central theme in current research in cognitive neuroscience. Behavioral protocols have provided an entry into explorations of the neural processes that underlie decision-making. Empirical studies have provided support for a diffusion model in which information accumulates over time until a threshold is reached, with noisiness in the inputs related to decision errors. Kiani and Shadlen (p. 759 ) developed a behavioral task to study choice certainty and identified the corresponding neuronal representations in monkeys. The monkeys were allowed to choose to opt out of an uncertain, higher reward choice in favor of a certain, lower payoff. The same neurons that encoded the information used to make a choice also encoded the extent of certainty, which in humans would be described as the degree of confidence in one's decision.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Rhesus monkeys performing a random-dot direction task with a post-decision sure-bet option opted out more often when motion was weak or brief and when lateral intraparietal (LIP) firing rates were intermediate. The same LIP neurons that represented the direction decision also encoded choice certainty, linking decision formation and confidence in one population.
Key findings
- Monkeys chose the sure target more frequently for weaker motion strengths and shorter stimulus durations (p<10−8) and when the probability of making an error was higher (p<10−8). When they waived the sure bet, direction-choice accuracy was better than on trials without the post-decision wager (p<10−3).
- In 70 LIP neurons, activity before sure-target onset was intermediate when monkeys later chose the sure target. For motion toward Tin, activity was significantly smaller for Ts choices than Tin choices (p=0.007, ANOVA); for motion toward Topp, activity was significantly larger for Ts choices than Topp choices (p=0.001). The variance for Ts choices was smaller than expected from a mixture of Tin and Topp states (p=4.7×10−5, F-test).
- Single-trial deviation from an intermediate firing rate was inversely related to the probability of choosing the sure bet (p=2.3×10−5). Residual LIP fluctuations, after accounting for motion strength and direction, also predicted sure-target choice (p=4.0×10−5), and buildup-rate deviation did so as well (p=0.017; not explained by motion strength, p=0.0018).
- In 19 neurons with the sure target in the response field, activity during motion and delay was not significantly modulated and was uninformative about choosing or forgoing Ts (p>0.1 for both directions). After Ts onset, the visual response was slightly larger when monkeys chose Ts (p<0.01, median difference = 7.7%). A Bayesian sequential-sampling model with three free parameters fit behavior (R2=0.97 and 0.98) and predicted accuracy on waived-Ts trials (R2=0.97).
Methods
- Two rhesus monkeys made direction decisions about dynamic random-dot motion; difficulty was varied by motion coherence and viewing duration. On a random half of trials, after the motion was extinguished, a sure-target option appeared at least 500 ms later, offering a small certain reward instead of the direction choice.
- Extracellular recordings were made from 70 LIP neurons with a direction-choice target in the response field, plus 19 neurons with the sure target in the response field. Analyses included population and single-trial logistic regression, ANOVA/F-tests, buildup-rate estimation, and a bounded evidence accumulation/Bayesian sequential sampling model.
Limitations
- The paper states that the agreement between the model and LIP responses is only approximate, presumably because neurons besides those recorded contribute to certainty, and that a single neuron’s influence on the post-decision wager is expected to be small.
- The paper does not have a dedicated limitations section. Evident from the text: the neural evidence is correlational, with no causal manipulation; the main neural sample is 70 LIP neurons in two monkeys, with a smaller 19-neuron sample for the sure-target-in-RF configuration; and choice certainty is inferred from post-decision wagering behavior.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The monkeys opted for the sure target when the chance of making a correct decision about motion direction was small.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“They exercised this option more frequently for the weaker motion strengths and for the shorter stimulus durations (p<10−8, Eq. 1, see (25); Fig. 1B)”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25] Materials and Methods are available as supporting online material.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This improvement was apparent at almost all motion strengths and stimulus durations.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For motion toward Tin, the neural activity across the population was significantly smaller for Ts choices than for Tin choices (p=0.007, ANOVA; Fig. 2E).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We observed a similar divergence and persistence of activity for Tin and Topp choices on the trials in which Ts was presented but was waived by the monkey (Fig. 2B, solid traces).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These neurons exhibited spatially selective persistent activity that predicted whether an eye movement was planned into the response field (RF) of the neuron on a memory guided saccade task(29–31).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the buildup of firing rate reflected the stimulus strength (p=0.01, Eq. 10; Fig. S2)”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This same pattern was observed on a subset of trials in which identical random dot patterns were repeated (p<0.025; Fig. S1)”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the monkey chose Ts the response gradually converged to the Topp level.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“when the monkeys waived this option, the choice accuracy was better than on the trials when they were not offered the post-decision wager (p<10−3, Eq. 3; Fig. 1C).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 19
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
In the paper
“The neural activity following motion onset underwent a brief dip and then diverged to indicate the monkey’s decision for Tin or Topp. The activity persisted through the delay period until the eye movement (18).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Shadlen MN Newsome WT J Neurophysiol 86 1916 2001 11600651 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Following onset of Ts, there was a dip in activity, followed by a return to the level of activity preceding onset of Ts.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model has only three free parameters (Table S1), which were set by fitting the proportion of Ts choices and the probability correct for trials without Ts (dashed curves; Fig. 4D, R2=0.97; Fig. 4E, R2=0.98).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For stronger motion, the decision variable associated with Ts choices follows less intermediate trajectories (note separation of dashed curves), and the decision variable associated with direction choices rises (or falls) faster toward its plateau level. Both of these features are evident in the neural responses.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The prior probability that motion is left or right is equal.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However the expected value of Tin, in the objective sense (from economics), changes as a function of motion strength (psychometric function; Fig. 1C), whereas the firing rate is minimally affected by motion strength when the monkey waives Ts (Fig. 4F and S4).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“consistent with the accumulation of stronger evidence, shorter decision times, and ultimately more accurate decisions (13, 17).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [13] SW Link The Wave Theory of Difference and Similarity Scientific Psychology Series Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [17] Gold JI Shadlen MN Annu Rev Neurosci 30 535 2007 17600525 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The influence of a single neuron on the probability of a post-decision wager is expected to be small because it is but one member of a large population of neurons that govern the behavior, presumably (33–35).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Parker AJ Newsome WT Annu Rev Neurosci 21 227 1998 9530497 source
- Not checked yetcites [34] Zohary E Shadlen MN Newsome WT Nature 370 140 1994 8022482 source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Shadlen MN Britten KH Newsome WT Movshon JA J Neurosci 16 1486 1996 8778300 PMC6578557 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“consistent with the long held view that decision time contributes to choice certainty (8, 9, 12).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [8] Volkmann J Psychol Bull 31 672 1934
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [9] Johnson DM Archs Psychol 34 1 1939
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [12] Audley RJ Br Med Bull 20 27 1964 14104093 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In other words, both the evolution of decision-related activity and the sustained activity in the delay period carry information about choice certainty.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The decision terminates naturally when there is no more evidence (e.g., when the stimulus duration is short) or when v reaches a critical level or bound.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Roitman JD Shadlen MN J Neurosci 22 9475 2002 12417672 PMC6758024 source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Kiani R Hanks TD Shadlen MN J Neurosci 28 3017 2008 18354005 PMC6670720 source
- Not checked yetcites [21] Churchland AK Kiani R Shadlen MN Nat Neurosci 11 693 2008 18488024 PMC2453226 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This simple model explains the observed behavior and successfully predicts the amount of improvement in probability correct for trials in which the monkey waives Ts.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The prior probability that motion is left or right is equal.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Opting out of the direction decision happens when the expected chance of success based on v(t) at decision time is less than a criterion level.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The agreement is only approximate, presumably because neurons besides the ones we recorded contribute to the estimation of certainty (1, 22).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [1] Vickers D Decision Processes in Visual Perception Academic Press New York 1979
- Not checked yetcites [22] Beck JM Neuron 60 1142 2008 19109917 PMC2742921 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It explains both the diminishing returns associated with prolonged viewing in our experiment (Fig. S3) (20) and the tradeoff between speed and accuracy in reaction time experiments (13, 39, 40).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [20] Kiani R Hanks TD Shadlen MN J Neurosci 28 3017 2008 18354005 PMC6670720 source
- Not matchedcites [13] SW Link The Wave Theory of Difference and Similarity Scientific Psychology Series Erlbaum Hillsdale, NJ 1992
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [39] Palmer J Huk AC Shadlen MN J Vis 5 376 2005 16097871 source
- Not checked yetcites [40] Vickers D Packer J Acta Psychol (Amst) 50 179 1982 7102359 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The prior probability that motion is left or right is equal.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The key insight is that both v and t convey information about certainty.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is the decision variable, v(t), that governs the choice of direction, having either attained a critical level — a decision termination bound —or by comparison to a criterion if the evidence stream ceases.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is probably also consistent with other models that exploit a broader population of LIP neurons to encode posterior probability (22, 41).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It therefore seems likely that the computation of choice certainty is passed, from LIP, to brain structures that anticipate reward, and it is likely that feedback from these structures affects LIP in the epoch after the appearance of Ts to mediate the decision to choose or forgo the Ts option.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, a diversion of attention away from Tin to the potential location of Ts should have led to a reduction in firing rate for both Tin and Topp directions during motion viewing and in the delay period before Ts appeared.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even subjective expected value, which is synonymous with certainty, fails to fully capture the deeper insight our experiment reveals about mechanism: the evolution of decision-related activity that gives rise to a choice also underlies certainty and a wager based upon it.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Attention (or motor planning) might explain the activity just preceding saccades, but it does not explain the intermediate firing rates in the key epochs of interest.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“From this perspective, our neural recordings support the idea of a “Bayesian brain” (66) and a neural mechanism of decision making that does not flip into a fixed point or attractor state but instead approximates the formation of a probability distribution (41, 67).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“LIP neurons are hypothesized to encode the attentional salience or expected value of a visual saccade target (52, 53, 63), but these concepts cannot explain the pattern of LIP activity in our experiment.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
What the sources say
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This simple mechanism brings certainty, which is commonly conceived as a subjective aspect of decision making, under the same rubric as choice and RT (1, 62) and removes the need to resort to meta-cognitive explanations for certainty monitoring (45).”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] Vickers D Decision Processes in Visual Perception Academic Press New York 1979
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [62] Smith PL J Math Psychol 32 135 1988
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [45] Smith JD Beran MJ Couchman JJ Coutinho MV Psychon Bull Rev 15 679 2008 18792496 PMC4607312 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our findings support a low-level explanation of post-decision wagering in our task, but they do not preclude the possibility that an animal that experiences subjective awareness of degree of certainty might base such impressions on neural signals like the ones exposed here.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, this “sure-target” was shown during the delay period, at least 500 ms after the random dot motion was extinguished.”
§ Representation of confidence associated with a decision by neurons in the parietal cortex > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
The paper relies on this without support.
Neurons in orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate cortex do not give rise to a representation of decision uncertainty but receive this information from neurons that compute this quantity in the decision making process.
“However, these neurons do not give rise to a representation of decision uncertainty but presumably receive this information from neurons that compute this quantity in the decision making process.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The prior probability that motion is left or right is equal.
“The last term vanishes, because the prior probability that motion is left or right is equal.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Opting out of the direction decision happens when the expected chance of success based on v(t) at decision time is less than a criterion level.
“it is easy to imagine that opting out of the direction decision might happen when the expected chance of success based on v(t) at decision time is less than a criterion level (Fig. 4C).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Moreover, as we saw above, the dynamics of evidence accumulation within the choice period provide a neural representation of uncertainty that can be used to inform confidence (Kiani & Shadlen 2009).”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Kiani & Shadlen 2009
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“In certain scenarios, such as the decision to opt out of a well-constrained decision problem, propositional confidence can be derived from a direct transformation of the accumulated evidence for one choice or the other (Kiani & Shadlen 2009, van den Berg et al. 2016a).”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Kiani & Shadlen 2009
In the citing paper
“The same framework also explains the confidence that a decision is correct (Kiani and Shadlen, 2009; Kiani et al., 2014a).”
From A common mechanism underlies changes of mind about decisions and confidence (2016) · cites this paper as Kiani and Shadlen, 2009
In the citing paper
“Choice confidence can be seen to emerge from the dynamics of noisy accumulators in the race model7,21, leading to dual effects of difference in value and reaction time on confidence27.”
From Confidence in value-based choice (2013) · cites this paper as [27]
In the citing paper
“Previous studies have relied on an object-level framework, where confidence is equated with the information that governs the choice process [ 30 – 32 ].”
From Metacognition: computation, biology and function (2012) · cites this paper as [31]
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Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Pierce C. S., Jastrow J., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 3, 75 (1884).
- Volkmann J., Psychol. Bull. 31, 672 (1934).
- Johnson D. M., Arch. Psychol. 34, 1 (1939).
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kiani, R., & Shadlen, M. N.
- Affiliations
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute (US)
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2009-05-08
- Volume
- 324
- Issue
- 5928
- Pages
- 759-764
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC2738936
- OpenAlex
- W2148821453
- Semantic Scholar
- 5af4a54e7ee446af7871549f7757981048861b60
- Cited by
- 1,027
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 90 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 69 · 2018: 66 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 64 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 59
- FWCI
- 21.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- National Eye Institute (EY11378, R01EY011378)
- National Center for Research Resources (RR00166, P51RR000166)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- decision confidence, parietal cortex, single-unit recording, perceptual decision making, rhesus monkeys
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain Mapping, Decision Making, Judgment, Macaca mulatta, Motion Perception, Neurons, Parietal Lobe, Reward, Saccades, Electrophysiological Phenomena
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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