Empathy and pro-social behavior in rats
Open accessAbstract
Rats free companions from restraint, apparently motivated by empathy to end their mate's distress.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Free rats learned to open a restrainer to liberate a trapped cagemate, doing so more than controls and even when social contact or chocolate was pitted against helping. The authors interpret this as pro-social behavior motivated by empathic concern, while acknowledging that internal motivation cannot be definitively proven in non-verbal animals.
Key findings
- In the trapped-cagemate condition, 23/30 rats became “openers” by the final days, versus only 5/40 in control conditions (1/8 object, 2/20 empty, 2/12 2+empty; P<0.001, chi-square). Mean day of learning to open was 6.9 ± 2.9.
- Rats opened a restrainer containing a cagemate but not an empty restrainer in the separated condition; expectation of immediate social contact was therefore not necessary for door-opening.
- In the cagemate-vs-chocolate paradigm, door-opening latencies for the cagemate and chocolate restrainers did not differ on days 6–12, and free rats shared chocolate with the freed cagemate in 52% of all trials and 61% of trials on days 6–12.
- Female rats in the trapped condition all became door-openers (n=6) and opened at shorter latency than males; females in the empty condition never opened the door (n=6). Alarm calls were more frequent in the trapped-cagemate condition (15%) than in empty/object conditions (3–5%).
Methods
- A free rat roamed an arena with a centrally located restrainer containing a cagemate, a plush toy rat, nothing, or with a second free cagemate separated by a perforated screen (2+empty condition). Sessions ran once daily for 12 days; door-opening counted only if the free rat opened it before the experimenter’s halfway opening.
- Additional cohorts tested whether social contact was necessary (separated condition: 12 pairs, 9 free rats tested in counterbalanced separated-empty and separated-cagemate stages of 29 and 27 days) and whether liberating a cagemate competed with chocolate (cagemate vs. chocolate, and chocolate vs. empty).
- Main measures included door-opening latency/proportion, activity, restrainer-centered behavior, alarm calls (22–23 kHz), sex differences, and boldness via approach latency to an opened cage ledge.
Limitations
- The paper explicitly states that it is “impossible to unambiguously and definitively prove the interior motivation of a non-verbal animal,” and considers alternatives such as stopping alarm calls, curiosity, or coincidental high activity, arguing each is unlikely.
- Evident from the text: empathy is inferred from behavioral and physiological proxies rather than directly measured; the authors also note that alarm calls were relatively infrequent, so they could not fully rule out that explanation.
- Evident from the text: some rats developed learned helplessness if they failed to open the door early, requiring experimenter halfway opening in failed trials, which may shape later performance.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
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Claims the paper makes
0 of 12 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingown data
Free rats in the trapped condition ate fewer chips, 3.5 ± 1.5 on average, with trapped rats eating the remainder (1.5 ± 1.4).
“In contrast, free rats in the trapped condition ate fewer chips, 3.5 ± 1.5 on average (P<0.01), with trapped rats eating the remainder (1.5 ± 1.4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Animals who eventually proved to be openers showed significantly lower latencies for approach to the ledge of an opened cage than non-openers.
“Interestingly, animals who eventually proved to be openers showed significantly lower latencies for approach than non-openers, suggesting that openers were bolder (fig. S2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Female rats in the trapped condition opened the restrainer door at a shorter latency than did males.
“Further, female rats in the trapped condition opened the restrainer door at a shorter latency than did males (Fig. 3A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Rats in the trapped cagemate condition made significantly more alarm calls (15%) than rats in the empty and object conditions (3-5%).
“Rats in the trapped cagemate condition made significantly more alarm calls (15%) than rats in the empty and object conditions (3–5%, Fig. 2F) in randomly sampled files from all 12 days of testing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In 90% of files containing spontaneous alarm calls on day 1, the trapped rat was identified as the source of the calls.
“In 90% of files containing spontaneous alarm calls on day 1, the trapped rat was identified as the source of the calls, and in the remaining samples, we were not able to unambiguously identify the caller.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingown data
The proportion of rats in the trapped cagemate condition that opened the door increased across the 12 days of the experiment.
“The proportion of rats in the trapped cagemate condition that opened the door increased across the 12 days of the experiment (Fig. 2A).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the final days of testing, most rats (23/30) in the trapped condition opened the door within several minutes and were classified as openers.
“In the final days of testing, most rats (23/30) in the trapped condition opened the door within several minutes of the start of the session, and were classified as “openers””
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Females in the empty condition never opened the restrainer door.
“Females in the empty condition never opened the restrainer door.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In the chocolate empty condition, rats opened the chocolate-containing restrainer significantly more quickly than they opened the empty one.
“In contrast, rats in the chocolate empty condition opened the chocolate-containing restrainer significantly more quickly than they opened the empty one (Fig. 4C).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Rats in control conditions (empty or object-containing restrainer) rarely opened the restrainer door; only 5 of 40 became openers.
“Rats did not open an empty or object-containing restrainer.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Only 5 of 40 in the control conditions (1/8, object; 2/20, empty; 2/12, 2+empty) became openers (P<0.001, chi-square).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
When activity was aligned to the opening of the door, there was a sharp increase in activity just before and extending for more than 10 minutes afterward.
“When activity was aligned to the opening of the door, there was a sharp increase in activity just before and extending for more than 10 minutes afterward (Fig. 2C).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Rats in the chocolate empty condition ate on average 4.8 ± 0.7 chips out of the five available.
“Rats in the chocolate empty condition ate on average 4.8 ± 0.7 chips out of the five available.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Prior to learning to open the door, free rats in the trapped cagemate condition stayed significantly more active in the second half relative to the first half of sessions than did rats in control conditions.
“Prior to learning to open the restrainer door and liberate the trapped rat (mean: day 6.9 ± 2.9), free rats in the trapped cagemate condition stayed significantly more active in the second half relative to the first half of sessions than did rats in the control conditions (Fig. 1D).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
On later days (days 6-12), rats consistently opened the door with their heads.
“On later days, (days 6–12) they consistently opened the door with their heads (Fig. 2D).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
In the trapped cagemate condition, free rats learned to open the restrainer door and liberate the trapped cagemate within a few days.
“Within days, the free rat acted deliberately and quickly to open the restrainer and free the cagemate.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
“Rats in the trapped cagemate condition showed restrainer-centered activity (Fig. 1A; Movie S1) and learned to open the door and liberate the trapped cagemate within a few days.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
- Findingown data
In the chocolate cagemate condition, there was no difference in the door-opening latencies for the two restrainers during days 6-12.
“For rats in the chocolate cagemate condition, there was no difference in the door-opening latencies for the two restrainers during days 6–12 (Fig. 4B).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The greater frequency of alarm calls in the trapped cagemate condition than in control conditions suggests that the former paradigm was stressful.
“The greater frequency of alarm calls in the trapped cagemate condition than in control conditions suggests that the former paradigm was stressful.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The most parsimonious explanation for the observed helping behavior is that rats free their cagemate in order to end distress, either their own or that of the trapped rat, that is associated with the circumstances of the trapped cagemate.
“Thus, the most parsimonious explanation for the observed helping behavior is that rats free their cagemate in order to end distress, either their own or that of the trapped rat, that is associated with the circumstances of the trapped cagemate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Appreciation of another's distress without experiencing overwhelming emotional distress is conducive to pro-social behavior.
“In contrast, appreciation of another’s distress without experiencing overwhelming emotional distress is conducive to pro-social behavior (3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Eisenberg N Miller PA Fultz J Shell F Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1989 57 55 2754604 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
The value of freeing a trapped cagemate is on a par with accessing chocolate chips.
“These results show that the value of freeing a trapped cagemate is on a par with accessing chocolate chips.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Individual trait differences factor into the individual expression of pro-social behavior.
“This demonstrates that individual trait differences factor into the individual expression of pro-social behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Human and non-human females are more empathic than males.
“Consistent with previous findings that human and non-human females are more empathic than males (5–7)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [5] Langford DJ Soc. Neurosci 2010 5 163 19844845 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [6] Romero T Castellanos MA de Waal FB Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A 2010 107 12110 20547864 PMC2901437 source
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [7] Mohr C Rowe AC Blanke O Br. J Psychol 2010 101 277 19619391 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Openers were bolder than non-openers.
“suggesting that openers were bolder (fig. S2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Previous research has provided clear evidence that rodents experience emotional contagion.
“Previous research has provided clear evidence that rodents experience emotional contagion (5, 10, 11, 17–19)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationcitation
Rodents behave pro-socially when they perceive a conspecific experiencing non-painful psychological restraint stress, acting to end that distress through deliberate action.
“Our study shows that rodents behave pro-socially when they perceive a conspecific experiencing non-painful psychological restraint stress (8, 9), acting to end that distress through deliberate action.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Door-opening by the free rat in the trapped condition showed the characteristics of goal-directed behavior.
“Hence, door-opening by the free rat in the trapped condition showed the characteristics of goal-directed behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The separation of one's own affective state from another's is crucial for the pro-social manifestation of empathic concern.
“The separation of one’s own affective state from another’s is crucial for the pro-social manifestation of empathic concern (1, 2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [1] Batson DC Decety J Ickes WJ The Social Neuroscience of Empathy 2009 Cambridge, MA The MIT Press 3 15
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [2] Decety J Jackson PL Behav. Cogn Neurosci. Rev 2004 3 71 15537986 source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationown data
Since alarm calls were relatively infrequent, it is unlikely that the free rat was acting to terminate alarm calls.
“Since alarm calls were relatively infrequent, it is unlikely that the free rat was acting to terminate alarm calls.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Expectation of immediate social contact is not necessary for pro-social behavior in rats.
“indicating that expectation of immediate social contact is not necessary for pro-social behavior in rats.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 12
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFemale rats were more active than males in the trapped cagemate condition but there was no sex difference in the empty condition.
“Female rats were also more active than males in the trapped cagemate condition but there was no sex difference in the empty condition (Fig. 3B).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataRats initially froze after the door fell over, but in later days of testing (days 6-12) they did not freeze.
“Furthermore, rats initially froze after the door fell over, suggesting that door-opening (which made a sound) was an unexpected event. But in later days of testing (days 6–12), they did not freeze (Fig. 2E)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFree rats shared the chocolate chips with their freed cagemate in half of all trials (52%) and 61% of all trials on days 6-12.
“Remarkably, we found that free rats shared the chocolate chips with their freed cagemate in half of all trials (52%) and 61% of all trials on days 6–12.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe time to door-opening decreased for rats in the trapped condition but not for those in control conditions.
“The time to door-opening decreased for rats in the trapped condition but not for those in control conditions (Fig. 2B; Movie S2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll female rats in the trapped condition became door-openers whereas a third of the male rats were non-openers.
“all female rats in the trapped condition became door-openers whereas a third of the male rats were non-openers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn the separated condition, rats opened the door of a restrainer containing a cagemate but not that of an empty restrainer.
“Thus, individual rats opened the door of a restrainer containing a cagemate but not that of an empty restrainer”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFree rats in the trapped cagemate condition spent more time near the restrainer in the arena center and showed greater movement speed than rats in control conditions.
“They spent more time near the restrainer in the arena center (Fig. 1B), and showed greater movement speed (hereafter termed activity, Fig. 1C) than rats in the control conditions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe average day on which rats learned to open the chocolate restrainer was 5.8 ± 2.1, similar to that for rats in the trapped cagemate condition (6.9 ± 2.9).
“It is interesting to note that the average day on which rats learned to open the chocolate restrainer was 5.8 ± 2.1, similar to that for rats in the trapped cagemate condition (6.9 ± 2.9).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Premisenone givenIn humans, empathic concern is a common motivator of pro-social behavior.
“One common motivator of pro-social behavior in humans is empathic concern, an other-oriented emotional response elicited by and congruent with the perceived welfare of an individual in need.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe free rat did not simply mimic another rat's distress (emotional contagion) but also acted with intention to liberate a trapped rat, suggesting that rats can down-regulate emotional distress to act upon empathic concern.
“In the current study, the free rat did not simply mimic another rat’s distress, i.e., express emotional contagion, but also acted with intention to liberate a trapped rat, suggestive that rats can down-regulate emotional distress to act upon empathic concern and thus improve the well-being of a conspecific.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Emotional contagion and the accompanying affective arousal is necessary for empathically motivated helping behavior.
- Rests on an assumption: The motivation to help and protect another is separate from the ability to experience the same type of emotion that another is experiencing.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataPro-social behavior occurred in the absence of training or social reward, and even when in competition with highly palatable food.
“Pro-social behavior occurred in the absence of training or social reward, and even when in competition with highly palatable food.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataEven when motivated by access to highly palatable food, door-opening was neither easy nor instinctual.
“Thus, even when motivated by access to highly palatable food, door-opening was neither easy nor instinctual.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataRats behave pro-socially in response to a conspecific's distress, providing strong evidence for biological roots of empathy.
“Thus, rats behave pro-socially in response to a conspecific’s distress, providing strong evidence for biological roots of empathy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationManifestation of pro-social behavior in humans requires down-regulation to prevent an individual from becoming overwhelmed by the negative emotion aroused by another's distress.
“The manifestation of pro-social behavior in humans requires down-regulation to prevent an individual from becoming overwhelmed by the negative emotion aroused by another’s distress (22).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] Decety J Svetlova M Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 2011 Epub ahead of print PMC6987713 22682726 source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningIn the separated condition, all 9 free rats were tested in counter-balanced order with both an empty and full restrainer.
“Thus, all 9 free rats were tested in counter-balanced order with both an empty and full restrainer.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductreasoningDoor-opening was only counted as such if the free rat opened the door prior to the half-way opening.
“Door-opening was only counted as such if the free rat opened the door prior to the half-way opening.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotional contagion and the accompanying affective arousal is necessary for empathically motivated helping behavior.
“Emotional contagion and the accompanying affective arousal is necessary for empathically motivated helping behavior”
The paper relies on this without support.
The motivation to help and protect another is separate from the ability to experience the same type of emotion that another is experiencing.
“but the motivation to help and protect another is separate from the ability to experience the same type of emotion that another is experiencing.”
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- Authors
- Bartal, I. B.-A., Decety, J., & Mason, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2011-12-09
- Volume
- 334
- Issue
- 6061
- Pages
- 1427-1430
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- PMC
- PMC3760221
- OpenAlex
- W2086935212
- Semantic Scholar
- b9aa9413c51c984083d62d62bd2fedcc8dfd0edb
- Cited by
- 934
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 65 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 82 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 53 · 2018: 78 · 2017: 65 · 2016: 59 · 2015: 61 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 47 · 2012: 26
- FWCI
- 51.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA022978, R21DA022429, DA022429, R01DA022978)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- empathy, prosocial behavior, empathic concern, helping behavior, rats, social motivation, food sharing, animal cognition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Behavior, Animal, Cooperative Behavior, Empathy, Female, Helping Behavior, Male, Motivation, Restraint, Physical, Social Behavior, Stress, Psychological, Rats, Sprague-Dawley, Rats
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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