Incarceration and Stratification

“The effects of poverty or inequality on crime are similarly complex (e.g., Blau & Blau 1982, Bushway & Reuter 2002, Cantor & Land 1985, Hagan & Peterson 1995), but prisons are most certainly filled with the poor (Wheelock & Uggen 2008).”

“Figure 5 Differences in male incarceration by race, ethnicity, and education (Source: Western 2006, p. 19). by these differences and placed onto differing tracks (see, e.g., Gamoran & Mare 1989).”

“An emerging research literature is now examining these intergenerational costs, with many hypothesizing strong negative effects (e.g., Hagan & Dinovitzer 1999, Nurse 2004, Travis et al. www.annualreviews.org • Incarceration and Stratification 397 A nn u.”

“…due to the stigma of a criminal record, poor work histories, low educational attainment, physical and mental health issues, and institutional barriers or restrictions (Goffman, 1963; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Bonta & Andrews, 2017; Holzer et al., 2002a, 2002b; Ricciardelli & Mooney, 2017, 2018).”

“Rehabilitation programs within prisons are severely limited [60, 109].”

“(Wakefield & Uggen, 2010, p. 400).”

“…in the US, in understanding how punishment, especially imprisonment, might reinforce socioeconomic inequality more generally, considering the adverse effects of prison sentences on education, work and income (Pager, 2008; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006; Western and Pettit, 2010).”

“In addition, formerly incarcerated persons are subjected to social stigma and often barred from using social service programming that might otherwise help them obtain gainful employment and acquire medical insurance (Pager, 2003; Schnittker, 2014; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“It is also important to consider that incarceration is unequally distributed in two important ways—across social groups (Wakefield and Uggen, 2010) and geographically (Shannon et al.”

“Since 2002, the United States has incarcerated people at a greater rate than any other country and at a much greater rate than any other industrialized democracy (Wakefield & Uggen 2010; Wildeman & Western 2010).”

“Incarceration worsens health, reduces income and human capital, damages family structures, and lowers civic participation (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Incarceration is bound up with systems of poverty and a lack of access to opportunity, especially education and socioeconomic mobility (Prowse et al. 2020; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western & Pettit, 2010).”

“Incarceration rates in the United States have increased rapidly over the past four decades, translating to a historically unprecedented number of children who experience parental incarceration (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…Forensic Nursing Copyright © 2016 International Association of Forensic Nurse Fain, 2005; Mauer, 2011), and the system itself may play a part in generating health disparities for women through such things as exposure to illness and increased stress (Alexander, 2012; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…of adequate care in the family, emotional trauma or interpersonal difficulties (Johnston 1995; Reed and Reed 1997; Hagan and Dinovitzer 1999; Hairston 2002; Travis and Waul 2003; Murray, Janson, and Farrington 2007; Swisher and Waller 2008; Western and Wildeman 2009; Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“Individuals entering incarceration often come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds [19], where access to and utilization of dental care may already be limited [20–22].”

“For instance, studies suggest that PI is associated with socioeconomic disadvantages across the life course (Geller and Franklin 2014; Hagan and Foster 2012a, 2012b; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Wakefield and Wildeman 2014; Western and Pettit 2010).”

“There is limited literature addressing the incarceration rates of women, particularly women of color (Mauer & King, 2007; Schmitt & Warner, 2010; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010).”

“…punishment and conditions of confinement mechanisms, and creates new inequalities through the stigmatization for formerly system-involved people and by transferring these harms to those who experience the criminal legal system vicariously through kith and kin (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010: 388).”

“Contact with and reentry from jails and prisons can bring about or aggravate mental and physical health conditions (Semenza & Link, 2019; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010), which can then hinder the achievement of reentry and life-course goals (Link et al., 2019).”

“Among treatments of inequality and incarceration, Western and Wildeman (2008) paint a picture of racial differences in incarceration of much higher magnitudes than several other social indicators including unemployment, nonmarital childbearing, infant mortality, and wealth.”

“To start, assessing the public perceptions of individuals convicted of a sexual offense is important because these perceptions can hinder the rehabilitation of these individuals (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Incarcerated fathers tend to exhibit higher levels of impulsivity, domestic violence perpetration, substance use, and other antisocial behaviors than fathers who have not been incarcerated (Murray, Loeber, and Pardini 2012; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Western 2006).”

“Since the 1980s, driven by policies such as the “war on drugs,” the prison system has become a potent and often unseen organization that promotes and hardens social inequality (Wakefield and Uggen, 2010: 400).”

“…and difficulty maintaining stable jobs are experienced by some ex-offenders (Esteban, Alós, Jódar, & Miguélez, 2014; Sangoi & Goshin, 2014; Turney, Lee, & Comfort, 2013; van Olphen, Eliason, Freudenberg, & Barnes, 2009; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, Braga, Davis, & Sirois, 2015).”

“Although the focus of this article has been on whether parental incarceration causes disadvantage (i.e., transmission of incarceration to children), there is strong evidence that social disadvantage also increases the likelihood of incarceration (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…youth; structural disadvantage; reoffending Introduction The vast majority of individuals who enter prison will at some point return to the community (Visher & Travis, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Wildeman & Richard Stansfield is an assistant professor of Criminal Justice at Rutgers University.”

“For example, in 2004 about 7.5 percent of the total adult population in the United States had a felony conviction on their records as compared to 33.4 percent of African American adult males (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“…of work on the collateral consequences associated with criminal justice contact with respect to labor market participation (Kirk & Wakefield, 2018; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010) and with the body of research documenting that not all workers were impacted equally by the pandemic, especially with…”

“Each level of compounded stigma has real effects on opportunity structures and life outcomes (Middlemass, 2017; Pager, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…and ethnic minorities are substantially more likely to be arrested and to be involved in later criminal justice stages relative to White individuals (e.g., Kochel et al. 2011; Wakefield and Uggen 2010); as such, minority populations are disproportionately subjected to these consequences, as well.”

“Finally, Los Angeles legalized medical marijuana use in 1996 and recreational use in 2016; hence, our findings may not generalize to areas that have not decriminalized marijuana use or time periods preceding decriminalization [52, 53].”

“Individuals returning from prison often lack access to material resources, like transportation, that facilitate connections to medical care and treatment (Bohmert & DeMaris, 2018; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…in practice this has not always proved to be successful (Pandeli et al, 2018), it is argued that prison work that closely resembles real employment outside the prison walls has greater rehabilitative potential (Guilbaud, 2010; Silva & Saraiva, 2016; Visher & Travis, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Further, by examining these perceptions within a stigmatization framework, it is possible that we may develop a deeper understanding of how the effects of “racialized mass incarceration” span far beyond mere incapacitation (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Lower socioeconomic status—as measured by education, income, homelessness, and health insurance coverage—is associated with higher incarceration risk (Wakefield and Uggen, 2010) and poorer health status and decreased access to health services (Adler and Newman, 2002; Adler and Rehkopf, 2008).”

“For instance, the share of Black and Latine men between the ages of 20 and 40 years with a felony conviction is around seven and three times greater than their white counterparts, respectively (Wakefield and uggen 2010).”

“concentrated among mothers navigating compounding stressors, such as systemic racism, poverty, housing instability, and under-resourced neighborhoods (Enns et al. 2019; Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“As with criminal legal system contact more generally, these effects are concentrated among the most marginalized segments of society (Pettit & Western, 2004; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010) and are evident (albeit to a lesser degree) in other parts of the Global North (Murray et al., 2014).”

“The largest determinants of the chances of being incarcerated are gender, race, and class, and their intersections (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“Therefore, incarceration may potentially contribute not only to interpersonal violence (Waters et al., 2005) in community settings but also to violence within families (Mowen & Visher, 2016).”

“First, those with lower levels of participation in the labor market are at an increased risk of coming in contact with the CJS (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Imprisonment disproportionally impacts marginalized groups (Wakefield and Uggen, 2010), yet we do not think about marginalized groups within the usually more privileged white-collar workers.”

“When combined, sex and race are powerful correlates of incarceration, particularly for Black men (Pettit and Western, 2004; Travis et al., 2014; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“In the collateral consequences literature, the bans are viewed as removing a critical social safety net, which increases poverty (Sheely 2021), exacerbates economic inequalities, and hinders social integration (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“These deleterious effects are not limited to the individuals accused of lawbreaking but also their families and communities (Travis et al., 2014; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010). youth are especially susceptible to these harmful effects because they are experienced during a formative period in their lives…”

“The historic rise in imprisonment has generated hundreds of studies dedicated to examining the impacts and collateral consequences of mass incarceration (see National Research Council 2014; Visher and Travis 2003; Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”