The DOI matches its Crossref record; 12 of the 12 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Incarceration and Stratification
Abstract
In the past three decades, incarceration has become an increasingly powerful force for reproducing and reinforcing social inequalities. A new wave of sociological research details the contemporary experiment with mass incarceration in the United States and its attendant effects on social stratification. This review first describes the scope of imprisonment and the process of selection into prison. It then considers the implications of the prison boom for understanding inequalities in the labor market, educational attainment, health, families, and the intergenerational transmission of inequality. Social researchers have long understood selection into prison as a reflection of existing stratification processes. Today, research attention has shifted to the role of punishment in generating these inequalities.
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“due to discriminatory application of policies and laws, individuals who have lower levels of education, employment, and income are more likely to encounter the CJS (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
From Adult Outcomes of Justice Involved Indigenous Youth (2023) · cites this paper as Wakefield & Uggen, 2010
In the citing paper
“Therefore, there continues to be a cycle of inequality (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010) among Indigenous individuals that is perpetuated and effectively solidified through the CJS.”
From Adult Outcomes of Justice Involved Indigenous Youth (2023) · cites this paper as Wakefield & Uggen, 2010
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“The effects of poverty or inequality on crime are similarly complex (e.g., Blau & Blau 1982, Bushway & Reuter 2002, Cantor & Land 1985, Hagan & Peterson 1995), but prisons are most certainly filled with the poor (Wheelock & Uggen 2008).”
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“Figure 5 Differences in male incarceration by race, ethnicity, and education (Source: Western 2006, p. 19). by these differences and placed onto differing tracks (see, e.g., Gamoran & Mare 1989).”
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“An emerging research literature is now examining these intergenerational costs, with many hypothesizing strong negative effects (e.g., Hagan & Dinovitzer 1999, Nurse 2004, Travis et al. www.annualreviews.org • Incarceration and Stratification 397 A nn u.”
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BackgroundThe Growth of Incarceration in the United States
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Massoglia, M., Firebaugh, G., & Warner, C. (2012) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122412471669 · Cited by 139
Beyond the dichotomy: incarceration dosage and mental health
Porter, L. C., & DeMarco, L. M. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12199 · Cited by 122
Mental health of adolescents with currently and formerly incarcerated parents
Davis, L., & Shlafer, R. J. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.10.006 · Cited by 137
A Meta-Analysis of Public Attitudes Toward Ex-Offenders
Rade, C. B., Desmarais, S. L., & Mitchell, R. E. (2016) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854816655837 · Cited by 132
“During and after 2009, the association is negligible ( r wc = .03, 95% CI = [0.00, 0.06]). discussiOn Negative public attitudes toward ex-offenders are a known barrier to reentry and successful community reintegration (e.g., Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialHopelessly Devoted? Relationship Quality During and After Incarceration
Turney, K. (2015) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12174 · Cited by 123
“…included race, immigrant status, age, and childhood family structure, given that previous research shows all were associated with incarceration and relationship quality (Bradbury, Fincham, & Beach, 2000; Brown & Booth, 1996; Glenn, 1990; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Webster, Orbuch, & House, 1995).”
BackgroundMaternal and paternal imprisonment in the stress process.
Foster, H., & Hagan, J. (2013) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.01.008 · Cited by 114
Hagan, J. L., & Foster, H. (2012) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5893.2012.00472.x · Cited by 117
Where “Old Heads” Prevail: Inmate Hierarchy in a Men’s Prison Unit
Kreager, D., Young, J. T. N., Haynie, D., Bouchard, M., Schaefer, D. R., & Zajac, G. (2017) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122417710462 · Cited by 113
INCARCERATION AND THE HEALTH OF THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY1
Schnittker, J., Massoglia, M., & Uggen, C. (2011) · Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x11000026 · Cited by 111
“Although they are often treated as social isolates, incarcerated persons are in fact embedded in every facet of social life—as neighbors, partners, and parents—which introduces the possibility of spillovers, particularly in communities of color ~Comfort 2008; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010!.”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Consequences of Paternal Incarceration for Maternal Neglect and Harsh Parenting
Turney, K. (2014) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/sot160 · Cited by 115
RACIAL INEQUALITIES IN CONNECTEDNESS TO IMPRISONED INDIVIDUALS IN THE UNITED STATES
Lee, H. E., McCormick, T. H., Hicken, M. T., & Wildeman, C. (2015) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x15000065 · Cited by 158
“…racial, class, and sex disparities in the American imprisonment rate (e.g., Bobo and Thompson, 2010 ; Clear 2007 ; Garland 2001 ; Glaze and Herberman, 2013; Gottschalk 2006 ; Pew Center on the States 2008 ; Wacquant 2001 ; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010 ; Western 2006 ; Wildeman and Muller, 2012 ).”
BackgroundThose They Leave Behind: Paternal Incarceration and Maternal Instrumental Support
Turney, K., Schnittker, J., & Wildeman, C. (2012) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00998.x · Cited by 118
“Some groups of children are especially affected, in that men who are young, poorly educated, and members of racial/ethnic minority groups, residing in neighborhoods of concentrated disadvantage, are at especially high risk of incarceration (Sampson & Loeffler, 2010; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialRace Making in a Penal Institution1
Walker, M. (2016) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/684033 · Cited by 108
Poverty in America: New Directions and Debates
Desmond, M., & Western, B. (2018) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053411 · Cited by 158
Liminal Men: Incarceration and Relationship Dissolution
Turney, K. (2015) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spv015 · Cited by 103
“These include demographic characteristics such as race/ethnicity, nativity, childhood family structure, and religiosity (e.g., Amato 2000; Wakefield and Uggen 2010); relationship characteristics such as duration, quality, and co-parenting (e.g., Brown and Booth 1996; Tach and Edin 2013);…”
BackgroundInfluentialPaternal Incarceration and Father–Child Contact in Fragile Families
Geller, A. (2013) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12056 · Cited by 105
EXPLAINING THE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN INCARCERATION AND DIVORCE
Siennick, S. E., Stewart, E. A., & Staff, J. (2014) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12040 · Cited by 108
Racialized re-entry: Labor market inequality after incarceration
Western, B., & Sirois, C. (2019) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soy096 · Cited by 101
The Effects of Jail and Prison Confinement on Cohabitation and Marriage
Apel, R. (2016) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716216629360 · Cited by 93
Mass Incarceration and Racial Inequality
Pettit, B., & Gutiérrez, C. (2018) · American Journal of Economics and Sociology · doi:10.1111/ajes.12241 · Cited by 160
Inmate Society in the Era of Mass Incarceration
Kreager, D. A., & Kruttschnitt, C. (2017) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092513 · Cited by 114
Toward a Criminology of Inmate Networks
Kreager, D. A., Schaefer, D. R., Bouchard, M., Haynie, D. L., Wakefield, S., Young, J. T. N., & Zajac, G. (2015) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2015.1016090 · Cited by 92
“…times what it was in the 1970s, research of inmate society has only just begun to reemerge (Skarbek, 2014; Trammell, 2012) and remains dwarfed by sociological studies of the collateral consequences of incarceration (Clear, 2007; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Wakefield & Wildeman, 2013; Western, 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCan At-Risk Youth Be Diverted From Crime?
Wong, J. S., Bouchard, J., Gravel, J., Bouchard, M., & Morselli, C. (2016) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854816640835 · Cited by 95
Cochran, J. C., Mears, D. P., Bales, W. D., & Stewart, E. A. (2015) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427815592675 · Cited by 89
Born Out of Place: Migrant Mothers and the Politics of International Labor
Cheng, C. (2016) · doi:10.1177/0094306115621526k · Cited by 86
Misidentifying the Effects of Parental Incarceration? A Comment on Johnson and Easterling (2012).
Wildeman, C., Wakefield, S., & Turney, K. (2013) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.01018.x · Cited by 86
“…detail, that these conclusions differ from those of other reviews (Murray, Farrington, & Sekol, 2012; Murray, Farrington, Sekol, & Olsen, 2009; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010, pp. 397 – 398; Wildeman & Western, 2010, pp. 167 – 169), many of which, we would argue, were quite sensitive to concerns…”
Self-citationIncarceration and Post-release Health Behavior
Porter, L. C. (2014) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146514531438 · Cited by 83
Paternal Incarceration and Children’s Food Insecurity: A Consideration of Variation and Mechanisms
Turney, K. (2015) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/681704 · Cited by 82
“…in incarceration rates since the mid-1970s, especially among poorly educatedminoritymen living in disadvantaged neighborhoods, means that a historically unprecedented number of children experience paternal incarceration ðPatillo, Weiman, and Western 2004; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Carson 2014Þ.”
BackgroundHave Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Sentencing Declined?
King, R. D., & Light, M. T. (2019) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/701505 · Cited by 87
Cochran, J. C., Mears, D. P., & Bales, W. D. (2014) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128714542503 · Cited by 83
“Minority inmates typically have fewer years of formal education, experience greater socioeconomic disadvantage, and have had more frequent contact with the criminal justice system (Pettit, 2012; Wacquant, 2001; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006).”
BackgroundResultTheoretical advances and problems in the sociology of punishment
Garland, D. (2017) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474517737274 · Cited by 154
The strains of maternal imprisonment: Importation and deprivation stressors for women and children
Foster, H. (2012) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2012.01.005 · Cited by 72
Soyer, M. (2013) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azt059 · Cited by 67
Rodríguez, J. M., Geronimus, A. T., Bound, J., & Dorling, D. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.04.014 · Cited by 101
IMPRISONMENT LENGTH AND POST‐PRISON EMPLOYMENT PROSPECTS
Ramakers, A. A. T., Apel, R. J., Nieuwbeerta, P., Dirkzwager, A., & van Wilsem, J. (2014) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12042 · Cited by 74
The Psychological Dimensions and the Social Consequences of Incarceration
Schnittker, J. (2014) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716213502922 · Cited by 72
Employer aversion to criminal records: An experimental study of mechanisms
Sugie, N. F., Zatz, N., & Augustine, D. (2019) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12228 · Cited by 88
“…unfettered access to criminal records—among employers as well as other decision 45 makers, such as landlords and colleges—may exacerbate long-term joblessness, low earnings, housing instability, and other inequalities (Desmond, 2016; Lageson, 2016; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, 2002).”
BackgroundFamilies Across the Income Spectrum: A Decade in Review
Cooper, M., & Pugh, A. J. (2020) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12623 · Cited by 91
Imprisonment and Labor Market Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment
Harding, D. J., Morenoff, J. D., Nguyen, A. P., & Bushway, S. D. (2018) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/697507 · Cited by 85
Incarceration, Maternal Hardship, and Perinatal Health Behaviors
Dumont, D. M., Wildeman, C., Lee, H., Gjelsvik, A., Valera, P., & Clarke, J. (2014) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-014-1466-3 · Cited by 68
“These findings indicate that incarceration operates as a stratifying institution not only generally [54, 55] but at the perinatal stage more specifically.”
BackgroundINCARCERATION AND POPULATION HEALTH IN WEALTHY DEMOCRACIES*
Wildeman, C. (2016) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12107 · Cited by 72
If You Build It, They Will Fill It: The Consequences of Prison Overcrowding Litigation
Guetzkow, J., & Schoon, E. W. (2015) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.1111/lasr.12140 · Cited by 89
Tough on Crime, Tough on Families? Criminal Justice and Family Life in America
Wakefield, S., Lee, H. E., & Wildeman, C. (2016) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716216637048 · Cited by 92
Self-citationThings Fall Apart: Health Consequences of Mass Imprisonment for African American Women
Lee, H. E., & Wildeman, C. (2011) · The Review of Black Political Economy · doi:10.1007/s12114-011-9112-4 · Cited by 81
“Despite such negative images of the men who enter prisons and jails, research nonetheless suggests that the imprisonment of men has negative consequences both for them and for those connected to them (Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Wildeman and Western 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialRacial disparities in health conditions among prisoners compared with the general population
Nowotny, K. M., Rogers, R. G., & Boardman, J. D. (2017) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2017.05.011 · Cited by 70
“Due to the social processes associated with incarceration (Beckett, Nyrop, & Pfingst, 2006; Bridges & Steen, 1998; Steffensmeier, Ulmer, & Kramer, 1998; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Wildeman &Muller, 2012), younger adults, males, and racial and ethnic minorities are overrepresented within prisons.”
BackgroundExplaining the Gaps in White, Black, and Hispanic Violence since 1990
Light, M. T., & Ulmer, J. T. (2016) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122416635667 · Cited by 70
Grieb, S. M. D., Crawford, A., Fields, J. C., Smith, H., Harris, R., & Matson, P. (2014) · Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved · doi:10.1353/hpu.2014.0118 · Cited by 57
Decarceration and community re-entry in the COVID-19 era
Franco-Paredes, C., Ghandnoosh, N., Latif, H., Kršák, M., Henao-Martínez, A., Robins, M., Barahona, L. V., & Poeschla, E. (2020) · Lancet. Infectious Diseases (Print) · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(20)30730-1 · Cited by 62
The Consequences of Adolescent Delinquent Behavior for Adult Employment Outcomes
Carter, A. (2018) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-018-0934-2 · Cited by 64
Metadata
- Authors
- Wakefield, S., & Uggen, C.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Irvine (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Sociology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2010-06-01
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 387-406
- ISSN
- 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2115
- OpenAlex
- W2124160730
- Cited by
- 747
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 36 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 13.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- mass incarceration, social stratification, social inequality, prison population, labor market inequality, educational attainment, health disparities, family breakdown, intergenerational transmission of inequality, punishment, United States
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