Cited by 747Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCriminal Justice and PenologyIntergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies

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Incarceration and Stratification

Wakefield, Sara, Uggen, Christopher·2010·Annual Review of Sociology

DOI 10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551

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Abstract

In the past three decades, incarceration has become an increasingly powerful force for reproducing and reinforcing social inequalities. A new wave of sociological research details the contemporary experiment with mass incarceration in the United States and its attendant effects on social stratification. This review first describes the scope of imprisonment and the process of selection into prison. It then considers the implications of the prison boom for understanding inequalities in the labor market, educational attainment, health, families, and the intergenerational transmission of inequality. Social researchers have long understood selection into prison as a reflection of existing stratification processes. Today, research attention has shifted to the role of punishment in generating these inequalities.

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Background
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“Figure 5 Differences in male incarceration by race, ethnicity, and education (Source: Western 2006, p. 19). by these differences and placed onto differing tracks (see, e.g., Gamoran & Mare 1989).”
Background
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“…punishment is not directly related to social equality, its indirect connection via economic and racial considerations (e.g. King and Wheelock, 2007; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Western and Pettit, 2010) makes it relevant to the social liberalism category and therefore subject to our fourth…”
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Burg, R. (2018) · doi:10.1017/9781316869147 · Cited by 2
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Aylward, A. (2017) · doi:10.1080/00131725.2017.1280763 · Cited by 2
A Public Administration Headache: An Evaluation Analysis of Prison Policy and Recidivism Toward Social Reintegration
Fonseca, J. R. S. (2015) · International Journal of Public Administration · doi:10.1080/01900692.2014.955197 · Cited by 2
“great importance, because prison has emerged as a powerful and often invisible institution that drives and shapes social inequality (Wakefield and Uggen 2010); (v) at last, the repeat inmates are mainly single, with lower education, younger, with a lot of prisons and convictions; thus individuals returning home from p…”
Background
Choosing the Points of Entry: Strategic Framing and the Problem of Hyperincarceration
Gandy, O. H. (2014) · Atlantic Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/15456870.2014.859977 · Cited by 2
The Lasting Effects of Incarcerating Juveniles in Adult Facilities: Examining the Impact on Employment and Income from Age 18-37Preprint
Silver, I. A., Semenza, D. C., & Wooldredge, J. (2024) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4762726 · Cited by 2
Youth-Led Struggles Against Racialized Crime Control in the United States
Goddard, T., & Myers, R. (2018) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58250-4_16 · Cited by 2
Neighborhood disadvantage and school dropout
Donnelly, L. (2015) · doi:10.7282/t37s7qrd · Cited by 6
The political economy of imprisonment
Cumley, S. R. (2012) · doi:10.17077/etd.hi4zgyim
The Rise of the Carceral State: Foundations and Contours of a Rapidly Changing Criminal Legal System
Wakefield, S., & Turney, K. (2025) · RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences · doi:10.7758/rsf.2025.11.3.04 · Cited by 3
Self-citation
Exploring Social Determinants of Cognitive Functioning: History of Criminal Legal System Involvement and Processing Speed Among Older Black Americans
Kahsay, E., Sneed, R. S., Zhong, C., Kalesnikava, V. A., & Mezuk, B. R. (2026) · Sociological Focus · doi:10.1080/00380237.2026.2627642 · Cited by 1
“…directly producing and sustaining between-group disparities in midlife health functioning (Massoglia 2008), stratification across health-relevant domains (Wakefield and Uggen 2010), and broader racial inequities amplified by political and social forces (Pettit and Gutierrez 2018; Tonry 2010).”
Care arrangements for children exposed to maternal incarceration: Evidence from Wisconsin
Font, S. A., Escobar, R. F., & Turney, K. (2026) · Journal of Marriage and Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.70086 · Cited by 1
Punishment as class governance: Bureaucratic (un)knowing and the gradient of state harm
Gonzalez, V. V. (2026) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/14624745261444370 · Cited by 1
Jailization: Entering the lobby to the US criminal legal system
Friday, G., Sims, K. M., & Eife, E. (2026) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/14624745261416734 · Cited by 1
Dental Insurance Status Among Formerly Incarcerated Older Adults
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Does time heal all? Evaluating the effect of time since conviction on employability
Jaynes, C., Santos, M. R., Thomas, D. M., & Smith, K. N. (2025) · Journal of criminal justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2025.102496 · Cited by 1
Exploring Fatherhood Attitudes and Substance Use Among Incarcerated Fathers.
Tadros, E., Zhao, J.-X., & Tindall, B. M. (2025) · International journal of offender therapy and comparative criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x251363984 · Cited by 1
Prior incarceration and food insecurity trajectories through older adulthood: findings from the Health and Retirement Study
Testa, A. M., Mijares, L., Fu, K., Yoder, A., Holaday, L. W., Gutiérrez, C., Jackson, D. B., Ganson, K. T., Nagata, J. M., & Hernandez, D. C. (2025) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2025-224343 · Cited by 1
A Test of the Dual Taxonomy Explanation of Life-Course-Persistent Offending: Individual Risk, Social Bonds, and Within-Individual Change in Delinquency in Children With Early Police Contact
van Hazebroek, B. C. M., van Domburgh, L., Blokland, A., de Keijser, J. D., Popma, A., & Wermink, H. (2025) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548251350120 · Cited by 1
“Systemic disparities in law enforcement practices and criminal justice policies can reinforce disadvantage, rather than reflect inherent criminal trajectories (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
Explaining Inconsistencies in the Effects of Incarceration on Socioeconomic Attainment: The Role of Parental Co-Residence
Siennick, S. E., Widdowson, A. O., Stults, B. J., & Kuper, J. L. (2025) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278251343855 · Cited by 1
Long-Term Impacts of Incarceration Exposure and Social Network Stability in Later Life
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Mixed signals from prison? Postsecondary vocational credentials, race, and postrelease employment
Lindsay, S. L. (2025) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12411 · Cited by 2
“Incarcerated people typically enter prison with limited educational backgrounds, often lacking high school diplomas (Couloute, 2018; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
Race, Health, and Recidivism: Examining the Effects of Health Status and Healthcare Needs on Recidivism for Black and White Formerly Incarcerated People
Wang, X., Wallace, D. M., & Infante, A. A. (2024) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287241305341 · Cited by 1
“In particular, IFI’s health status and their constrained employment prospects (Holzer et al., 2003; Pager, 2003, 2007; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, 2002, 2007; Western & Pettit, 2000) further complicate their prospects of gaining access to healthcare (Cuellar & Cheema, 2012, p. 932).”
No Family, No Friends: An Instrumental Variable Analysis to Revisit the Reintegration Model in Mexico
Fondevila, G., Gastón, L., & Massa, R. (2024) · The Prison journal · doi:10.1177/00328855241278265 · Cited by 1
“Kids are Kids”: Benevolent Ignorance and the Omission of Race in Developmental Justice Reform
Wannyn, W. (2024) · Science Technology & Human Values · doi:10.1177/01622439241264028 · Cited by 1
Variation by race/ethnicity-gender in the relationship between arrest history and alcohol use.
Jurinsky, J., & Christie-Mizell, C. A. (2024) · Alcohol, clinical & experimental research · doi:10.1111/acer.15285 · Cited by 1
Reconsidering the Relationship between Incarceration, Trust in the State, Community Engagement, and Civic Participation
Yi, Y., Enns, P. K., & Wildeman, C. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241277436 · Cited by 1
“…to being correlates of political participation, can be causes and consequences of incarceration exposure (DeFina and Hannon 2013; Miller 2013; Wakefield and Uggen 2010) and are directly tied to incarceration by legal barriers to college enrollment and employment opportunities in some…”
Unsafe communities: environmental injustice in carceral spaces
Estes, M. L., León-Corwin, M., & McElroy, J. R. (2023) · Safer Communities · doi:10.1108/sc-08-2023-0039 · Cited by 1
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Johnson, O. D., Petersen, N., & Martínez, B. P. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221117757 · Cited by 2
“Second, we explore convictions as the next major stage in the criminal justice process, as a criminal conviction can trigger a range of collateral consequences, including restrictions on voting, public assistance, and employment, among others (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
Background
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Does the open-cell regime foster inmates’ legal capability? Evidence from two Italian prisons
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“In addition, previous works have evidently established that race, sex, and age are significantly correlated with criminal justice contact (Gelman et al., 2007; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Shannon et al., 2017).”
Background
Criminal Justice Contact and Indebtedness in Young Adulthood: Investigating the Potential Role of State-level Hidden Sentences
Warner, C., Houle, J. N., & Kaiser, J. (2020) · Social Currents · doi:10.1177/2329496520974018 · Cited by 3
“Criminal justice contact, particularly incarceration, contributes to labor market inequalities (Wakefield and Uggen 2010), and scholars have recently turned their attention to outcomes such as net worth, assets, and debts (Dwyer, DeMarco, and Haynie 2019; Maroto 2015; Maroto and Sykes 2019; Sykes…”
Background
Will You Die for Your Country? Workplace Death in an Era of Mass Incarceration
Strader, E., & Hines, M. (2020) · Sociological forum (Randolph, N.J.) · doi:10.1111/socf.12644 · Cited by 1
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Cantekin, K., & Elgin, C. (2019) · European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10610-019-09412-8 · Cited by 1
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Policing Pleasure: A Sociolegal Framework for Understanding the Social Control of Desire
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“The portion of the U.S. population imprisoned has skyrocketed since the 1970s, disproportionately affecting men and particularly men of color, wherein approximately 100 per 100,000 people were incarcerated in the mid1970s to roughly 500 per 100,000 people by the mid2000s (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”
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Promoting Socio-Economic Development through Alternative Incarceration Systems of Rehabilitation of Offenders in Nsawam Medium-Security Prisons in Ghana
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Authors: Wakefield, S., & Uggen, C.
Affiliations: University of California, Irvine (US)
University of Minnesota (US)
ORCID: Wakefield, Sara
Uggen, Christopher
Venue: Annual Review of Sociology
Publisher: Annual Reviews
Published: 2010-06-01
Volume: 36
Issue: 1
Pages: 387-406
ISSN: 0360-0572 (ISSN-L)
1545-2115
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.012809.102551
OpenAlex: W2124160730
Cited by: 747
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 36 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 86 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 55 · 2015: 59 · 2014: 47 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 23
FWCI: 13.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Annual Review of Sociology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
Keywords: mass incarceration, social stratification, social inequality, prison population, labor market inequality, educational attainment, health disparities, family breakdown, intergenerational transmission of inequality, punishment, United States

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Incarceration and Stratification

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