Incarceration and Stratification

“The effects of poverty or inequality on crime are similarly complex (e.g., Blau & Blau 1982, Bushway & Reuter 2002, Cantor & Land 1985, Hagan & Peterson 1995), but prisons are most certainly filled with the poor (Wheelock & Uggen 2008).”

“Figure 5 Differences in male incarceration by race, ethnicity, and education (Source: Western 2006, p. 19). by these differences and placed onto differing tracks (see, e.g., Gamoran & Mare 1989).”

“An emerging research literature is now examining these intergenerational costs, with many hypothesizing strong negative effects (e.g., Hagan & Dinovitzer 1999, Nurse 2004, Travis et al. www.annualreviews.org • Incarceration and Stratification 397 A nn u.”

“The rising incarceration rate has especially transformed the life course of poorly educated, minority men (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…stress-related pathways, incarceration also harms health by negatively impacting individuals’ socioeconomic status (SES) and financial stability (Wakefield and Uggen 2010), restricting access to health resources such as food and housing (Kirk 2018; Testa and Jackson 2019), eroding individuals’…”

“Correspondingly, scholars have noted that the benefits of social support may vary across sociodemographic groups, specifically, for those individuals who churn in and out of the criminal justice system (Vaughn et al., 2012; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Often, those groups who are “made” or reimagined through legal control are those most associated with marginality: individuals who are jobless, uneducated, poor, and/or racial minorities (Wakefield & Uggen 2010).”

“Harris and colleagues (2010) suggest LFOs perpetuate poor economic circumstances and further stratify social classes—trends already resultant from felony convictions (Harding et al., 2014; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“In this study we investigate the relationship between incarcera-It is well established that the detrimental effects of incarceration extend into many areas of social life (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“…disadvantaged are more likely to be incarcerated, so differences in material hardship may in part reflect pre-existing differences (see Wakefield & Uggen, 2010) Consistent with other research that utilizes Add Health data (see Porter, 2014; Siennick, Stewart, & Staff, 2014), our…”

“While few studies have examined how incarceration affects health [7], they have suggested several causal mechanisms linking the two processes.”

“Behavioral models regard health care utilization as a function of 3 categories of influences: (1) perceived need for services, (2) predisposing factors, and (3) enabling factors.”

“Since many formerly incarcerated people have limited work and educational experiences before prison (Couloute, 2018; Rampey et al., 2016; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010), they likely rely on prison cre-dentials to find quality postprison work (Laub & Sampson, 2003).”

“Unfortunately, many formerly incarcerated people returning to their communities are struggling with substance use and addiction, mental health issues, and unstable housing (Massoglia 2008; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Harding et al. 2014; Stuart 2016).”

“The rising incarceration rate in the United States, as well as its unequal distribution across the population, may widen inequalities among individuals and families (Pettit and Western 2004; Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“To be sure, the incarcerated population is not a representative segment of the general population, but rather the carceral population is disproportionately drawn from those with a multitude of competing adversities and stressful life events, including high rates of family instability, exposure to violence, substance u…”

“…are marginalized in a variety of ways including being routinely excluded from public services, educational grants, voting, jury service, and many stable, high-paying jobs (Assari et al., 2018; Miller, 2021; Patterson et al., 2021; Wakefield et al., 2016; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006).”

“The steep rise in American imprisonment rates over the past four decades motivated a spate of research focused on incarceration’s negative social consequences (Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Western 2006).”

“Racial disparities in incarceration rates have been studied extensively[22, 27, 20, 18, 28], and while these disparities are partially due to differences in criminal involvement [17], the increase in imprisonment for Black males since 1980 was not matched by a similar increase in Black-male criminality [4, 3, 32].”

“…themselves (Schnittker and John 2007), compounded by the consequences for their own health, employment, financial security, and family well-being (Wakefield and Uggen 2010), which may make them less Goldman 413 available to provide their mothers with critical supports (Gans and Silverstein 2006;…”

“…body of research has established that mass imprisonment has negatively affected the life chances of an entire generation of disadvantaged minority men, playing a key role in reproducing broad patterns of socioeconomic inequality in America (Clear, 2007; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006).”

“Early initiation of substances and frequent substance use may make adolescents more likely to become involved in the juvenile justice system and subsequently the adult criminal justice system, contributing to an intergenerational cycle of incarceration (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…affect mental health through increased levels of vigilance and through the ensuing economic sequela that accompany involvement with the criminal justice system (e.g., unemployment, underemployment, and low wages; National Research Council and Institute of Medicine, 2014; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Individuals who experience incarceration are known to be disadvantaged in a number of ways that are important for outcomes like residential mobility (Wakefield and Uggen, 2010).”

“Yet far less is known about homelessness among the formerly incarcerated compared to other aspects of reintegration such as employment or family relationships (see Wakefield & Uggen, 2010 for a review).”

“The employment prospects of Black felons may be even bleaker than their white/nonHispanic counterparts (wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“The need to improve the programs to support the social reintegration of prisoners is urgent and widely recognized by both researchers and policy makers (Jacobs & Western, 2007; MacKenzie, 2000; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…it is not only the experience of currently being imprisoned but also the consequences of having ever been imprisoned that affect the well-being and life chances of prisoners, former prisoners, and their children (Morenoff and Harding 2014; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Wildeman and Muller 2012).”

“While increases in incarceration may lower crime rates due to incapacitation and deterrent effects, many question whether the reduction in crime rates tributable to mass incarceration is worth the social costs that accompany it (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“Although the prison population increased dramatically over a short period in the 1980s, systemic resources were not expanded, leading to system overcrowding that eventually exhausted available resources (Caputo, 2004; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Yet interventions often ignore or minimize environmental factors [23, 40] such as racism, classism, and sexism that have been shown to impact AIDUrelated health inequalities and health [7, 41, 42].”

“These attitudes, stigma, and discriminatory behaviors, in turn, detrimentally influence other domains critical to successful community reintegration (e.g., Brooks, Visher, & Naser, 2006; Pager, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…scholars have argued that exposure to incarceration may not only exacerbate disadvantage in the individual life course but may also contribute to the production and reproduction of inequality at the societal level (National Research Council 2014; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Western and Pettit 2010).”

“Racial inequality in the criminal legal system, from arrests to felony incarceration and execution, is well documented (Baumgartner, Epp, and Shoub 2018; Weaver et al. 2019; Western 2006; Wakefield and Uggen 2010; Pettit and Western 2004; Eberhardt et al. 2006).”

“In 2014, the National Research Council published a report on the causes and consequences of incarceration, issuing one sweeping policy recommendation: given the significant costs and minimal crime prevention benefits of mass incarceration, criminal justice policy should be revised to dramatically reduce the rate of in…”

“These findings suggest that one’s external, pre-prison social resources and embeddedness can facilitate a better prison life, or at least protect individuals from some collateral consequences (e.g., Atkin-Plunk & Armstrong, 2018; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“…to prison labor is understandable, given the exigent implications of mass incarceration and the broader the criminal justice system as racialized (and gendered) institutions of social control and inequality (Alexander, 2012; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006; Western and Pettit, 2010).”

“This disrupts local labor markets and possibilities for economic mobility, aggravates already existing health problems due to stress and shaky access to healthcare, ruptures family structures, furthers household disadvantage, and marginalizes former felons from civic life (Wakefield and Uggen 2010).”

“The literature has evidenced the highly disadvantaged family and neighborhood origins of incarcerated populations (Ng, 2010; Testa & Furstenberg, 2002; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western & Wildeman, 2009).”

“…further be influenced by the kinds of ecological processes (e.g. poverty, racial inequality, weakened institutions of social support, low collective efficacy) that set the stage for both the causes and consequences of incarceration (Clear, 2007; Sampson & Loeffler, 2010; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010).”

“Given that imprisonment disproportionally affects poor and disadvantaged subgroups of the population (Wakefield & Uggen, 2010), it is important to assess the extent to which selection effects may explain negative associations between PI and poor child outcomes into adulthood.”

“Accordingly, researchers have become acutely aware of the sheer number of individuals who experience incarceration and the vulnerabilities these individuals face before, during, and after incarceration.(1) In particular, a growing literature has documented the consequences of mass incarceration, defined as the histori…”

“…the much noted decline in crime rates over the past two decades (Christie, 2017; The Sentencing Project, 2019a; US BJS, 2018a), and it has resulted in the United States having the highest incarceration rate in the world (Messner and Rosenfeld, 2001; Wakefield and Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006).”

“The consequences of this expansion for current and former prisoners as well as the racial disproportionality of this phenomenon have been well-documented (Pager, 2003; Wakefield & Uggen, 2010; Western, 2006).”