Microglia and C9orf72 in neuroinflammation and ALS and frontotemporal dementia
Open accessAbstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a degenerative disorder that is characterized by loss of motor neurons and shows clinical, pathological, and genetic overlap with frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Activated microglia are a universal feature of ALS/FTD pathology; however, their role in disease pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. The recent discovery that ORF 72 on chromosome 9 (C9orf72), the gene most commonly mutated in ALS/FTD, has an important role in myeloid cells opened the possibility that altered microglial function plays an active role in disease. This Review highlights the contribution of microglia to ALS/FTD pathogenesis, discusses the connection between autoimmunity and ALS/FTD, and explores the possibility that C9orf72 and other ALS/FTD genes may have a "dual effect" on both neuronal and myeloid cell function that could explain a shared propensity for altered systemic immunity and neurodegeneration.
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The combination of NPTX2, NfL, and GFAP reflects the complexity of pathological mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative disorders and FTD in particular.
“The combination of NPTX2 (representing synaptic plasticity [35]), NfL (marker for overall neurodegeneration [60, 61]), and GFAP (depicting astrogliosis [62]) reflects the complexity of pathological mechanisms involved in neurodegenerative disorders and FTD in particular [63–66]”
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Microglia in neurodegeneration
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“The mechanism by which these repeat expansions may cause disease is outlined in three hypotheses: first, downregulation of gene expression (haploinsufficiency) leads to a loss of C9orf72’s normal cellular function; second, the presence of sense and antisense RNA foci could sequester RNA-binding proteins, resulting in…”
BackgroundLysosomes as a therapeutic target
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“Indeed, autoantibodies against ganglio side GM1 and GD1a, sulfoglucuronylparagloboside, neurofilament proteins, FAS/CD95 and voltage gated Ca 2+ channels have all been reported in patients with ALS (reviewed elsewhere 125 ) .”
BackgroundALS Genetics, Mechanisms, and Therapeutics: Where Are We Now?
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TBK1 Suppresses RIPK1-Driven Apoptosis and Inflammation during Development and in Aging
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“Activated microglia are a universal feature of ALS/FTD pathology (Lall and Baloh, 2017).”
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“Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is neurodegenerative disease that primarily affects upper and lower motor neurons, resulting in progressive muscular paralysis and typically leading to death within 2–5 years of diagnosis.”
BackgroundInfluentialImmune dysregulation in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: mechanisms and emerging therapies
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“6,23,54,55 A marked in crease in microglial inflammatory activity has been documented in C9orf72 in patients with ALS and correlates with more rapid disease progression.”
InfluentialC9orf72 suppresses systemic and neural inflammation induced by gut bacteria
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Motor Neuron Susceptibility in ALS/FTD
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Microglia in multiple sclerosis: Friend or foe
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iPSC-based disease modeling and drug discovery in cardinal neurodegenerative disorders
Okano, H., & Morimoto, S. (2022) · Cell stem cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2022.01.007 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Saberi, S., Stauffer, J. E., Jiang, J., Díaz-García, S., Taylor, A. E., Schulte, D. J., Ohkubo, T., Schloffman, C. L., Maldonado, M., Baughn, M. W., et al. (2017) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-017-1793-8 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
“Overall, while there are a number of lines of evidence showing decreased C9orf72 expression, we think that the lack of anatomic correlation to disease-related regions and evidence emerging from disease models [4, 7, 18, 21, 23, 39, 47] support that haploinsufficiency is not the major contributor to neurodegeneration.”
BackgroundCSF biomarkers of neuroinflammation in distinct forms and subtypes of neurodegenerative dementia
Abu‐Rumeileh, S., Steinacker, P., Polischi, B., Mammana, A., Bartoletti‐Stella, A., Oeckl, P., Baiardi, S., Zenesini, C., Huss, A. M., Cortelli, P., et al. (2019) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-019-0562-4 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation as a Factor of Neurodegenerative Disease: Thalidomide Analogs as Treatments
Jung, Y. J., Tweedie, D., Scerba, M. T., & Greig, N. H. (2019) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2019.00313 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Non-neuronal cells in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis — from pathogenesis to biomarkers
Vahsen, B. F., Gray, E., Thompson, A. G., Ansorge, O., Anthony, D. C., Cowley, S. A., Talbot, K., & Turner, M. R. (2021) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-021-00487-8 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
The Role of the Inflammasome in Neurodegenerative Diseases
Piancone, F., La Rosa, F., Marventano, I., Saresella, M., & Clerici, M. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26040953 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Neurotheranostics as Personalized Medicines
Kevadiya, B. D., Ottemann, B. M., Thomas, M. B., Mukadam, I., Nigam, S., McMillan, J., Gorantla, S., Bronich, T. K., Edagwa, B., & Gendelman, H. E. (2019) · Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.addr.2018.10.011 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Oeckl, P., Weydt, P., Steinacker, P., Anderl-Straub, S., Nordin, F., Volk, A. E., Diehl-Schmid, J., Andersen, P. M., Kornhuber, J., Danek, A., et al. (2019) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2018-318868 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Neuromuscular Junction Dismantling in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Cappello, V., & Francolini, M. (2017) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms18102092 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
“Possibly viral infections [41,42], autoimmune phenomena [43,44], and several other acquired causes linked to environmental conditions [45,46] could also contribute to the disease onset.”
BackgroundPottier, C. P., Ren, Y., Perkerson, R. B., Baker, M. C., Jenkins, G. D., van Blitterswijk, M., DeJesus‐Hernandez, M., van Rooij, J., Murray, M. E., Christopher, E. A., et al. (2019) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-019-01962-9 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Peripheral immunity is associated with the risk of incident dementia
Zhang, Y.-R., Wang, J.-J., Chen, S.-F., Wang, H.-F., Li, Y.-Z., Ou, Y.-N., Huang, S.-Y., Chen, S.-D., Cheng, W., Feng, J.-F., et al. (2022) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-022-01446-5 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Microglia, the prominent central immunity component, interact with neurons in aging brain through complement-mediated synaptic loss and lysosomal degradation pathways [6, 7].”
BackgroundInnate Immunity: A Common Denominator between Neurodegenerative and Neuropsychiatric Diseases
Novellino, F., Sacca, V., Donato, A., Zaffino, P., Spadea, M., Vismara, M., Arcidiacono, B., Malara, N., Presta, I., & Donato, G. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21031115 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“On the other hand, the most important features of C9Orf72 in ALS/FTD patients is the neuronal accumulation of intracytoplasmic aggregates containing dipeptide repeat (DPRs) proteins [169–172].”
BackgroundInfluentialMicroglia heterogeneity, modeling and cell-state annotation in development and neurodegeneration
Fumagalli, L., Nazlie Mohebiany, A., Premereur, J., Polanco Miquel, P., Bijnens, B., Van de Walle, P., Fattorelli, N., & Mancuso, R. (2025) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-025-01931-4 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…as C9orf72 ( C9 ), progranulin ( GRN ) and TBK1 , which are highly expressed in microglia, further emphasizes a direct involvement of these cellsl 57 . scRNA-seq technologies have been instrumental in shedding light on the transcriptional heterogeneity of microglia in neurodegenerative diseases,…”
Inflammation, Immunity, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: I. Etiology and pathology
Lyon, M. S., Wosiski‐Kuhn, M., Gillespie, R., Caress, J. B., & Milligan, C. (2018) · Muscle & Nerve · doi:10.1002/mus.26289 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Zhou, N., Liu, K., Sun, Y., Cao, Y., & Yang, J. (2019) · Protein & Cell · doi:10.1007/s13238-018-0599-3 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“…factors, which collaterally damage neural circuits and thus exaggerate the diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and glaucoma (Soto and Howell, 2014; Heppner et al., 2015; Meyer-Luehmann and Prinz, 2015; Ransohoff, 2016; Lall and Baloh, 2017).”
BackgroundAdvances in nanotechnology-based strategies for the treatments of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Wang, G., Rayner, S. L., Chung, R. S., Shi, B., & Liang, X. J. (2020) · Materials Today Bio · doi:10.1016/j.mtbio.2020.100055 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“So far, more than 20 genes have been associated with ALS, with C9orf72, SOD1, FUS, and TARDBP implicated in most familial ALS cases [15]; (2) Protein misfolding and aggregation; Essential RNA-binding proteins in ALS, such as TAR DNA binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43), Fused in sarcoma (FUS), ATXN2, hnRNPA1/A2, undergo…”
Loss of mouse Stmn2 function causes motor neuropathy
Juan, I. G. S., Nash, L. A., Smith, K. S., Leyton-Jaimes, M. F., Qian, M., Klim, J. R., Limone, F., Dorr, A. B., Couto, A., Pintacuda, G., et al. (2022) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2022.02.011 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Cui, Y., Yu, H., Bu, Z., Wen, L., Yan, L.-L., & Feng, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2022.894298 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Glial Cells—The Strategic Targets in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Treatment
Filipi, T., Heřmanová, Z., Turečková, J., Vaňátko, O., & Anděrová, M. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9010261 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Implications of Microglia in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia
Haukedal, H., & Freude, K. (2019) · Journal of Molecular Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2019.02.004 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
TDP-43 and Inflammation: Implications for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia
Bright, F., Chan, G., van Hummel, A., Ittner, L. M., & Ke, Y. D. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22157781 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“of function toxicity by impairment of cellular homeostatic processes such as autophagy [86].”
BackgroundMolecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration Related to C9orf72 Hexanucleotide Repeat Expansion
Leko, M. B., Župunski, V., Kirincich, J., Smilović, D., Hortobágyi, T., Hof, P. R., & Šimić, G. (2019) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2019/2909168 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Altogether, increased neuroinflammation, accumulation of RNA foci, and DPRs could lead to neuronal death (reviewed in [132]).”
BackgroundLiu, X., Liu, Y., Liu, J., Zhang, H., Shan, C., Guo, Y., Gong, X., Cui, M., Li, X., & Tang, M. (2023) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.382223 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“An increase in the number of GGGGCC repeats to more than 200 causes mitochondrial dysfunction, reduces endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria contacts, and triggers neuronal death (Liu et al., 2016; Lall and Baloh, 2017; Balendra and Isaacs, 2018; Beckers et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHuang, Q., Wang, Y., Chen, S., & Liang, F. (2023) · Aging and disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2023.0807 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Research on adult family lineages has identified specific gene mutations, including SOD1, C9orf72, TDP43, and FUS74, which are associated with the heritability of ALS [112, 113].”
Background(ADNI), A. D. N. I., Kleineidam, L., Chouraki, V., Próchnicki, T., van der Lee, S. J., Madrid-Márquez, L., Wagner-Thelen, H., Karaca, I., Weinhold, L., Wolfsgruber, S., et al. (2020) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-020-02138-6 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Sabogal-Guáqueta, A. M., Marmolejo-Garza, A., de Pádua, V. P., Eggen, B. J. L., Boddeke, E., & Dolga, A. M. (2020) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2020.101805 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Overall, microglia has been proposed as a critical driver in neurological diseases that affect millions of people worldwide (Figure 1) (Lall and Baloh, 2017; Zrzavy et al., 2017).”
Are Circulating Cytokines Reliable Biomarkers for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis?
Moreno‐Martínez, L., Calvo, A. C., Muñoz, M. J., & Osta, R. (2019) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms20112759 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Therefore, the loss of function of C9orf72 together with a combination of mutations of ALS/FTD genes could promote neurodegeneration [54].”
BackgroundZhong, L., Jiang, X., Zhu, Z., Qin, H., Dinkins, M. B., Kong, J., Leanhart, S., Wang, R., Elsherbini, A. M., Bieberich, E., et al. (2018) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23558 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Kumar, M., Arora, P., & Sandhir, R. (2020) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-020-09920-z · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“(ADHD), Alzheimer’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis and migraine (Valkanova et al. 2013; Barbosa et al. 2015; Kempuraj et al. 2017; Lall and Baloh 2017; Mammana et al. 2018; Leffa et al. 2019; Lombardo et al. 2019; Folke et al. 2019; Petralia et al. 2020).”
BackgroundThe panoramic view of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: A fatal intricate neurological disorder
Dhasmana, S., Dhasmana, A., Narula, A. S., Jaggi, M., Yallapu, M. M., & Chauhan, S. C. (2021) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2021.120156 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Regulation of microglia by glutamate and its signal pathway in neurodegenerative diseases
Zhang, X., Wang, D., Zhang, B., Zhu, J., Zhou, Z., & Cui, L. (2020) · Drug Discovery Today · doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2020.04.001 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
You, J., Youssef, M., Santos, J. R., Lee, J., & Park, J. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12101307 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“The second mechanism is a gain-of-function toxicity due to the presence of nuclear RNA foci observed in cells from C9ORF72 expansion carriers [165], which have been proposed to cause alterations in RNA metabolism and splicing defects due to the sequestration of RNA-binding proteins [167].”
BackgroundMishra, P. S., Vijayalakshmi, K., Nalini, A., Sathyaprabha, T. N., Kramer, B. W. W., Alladi, P. A., & Raju, T. R. (2017) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-017-1028-x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Further, studies involving the C9orf72 pathology suggest towards a potential role of the microglial C9orf72 repeat expansions in exacerbating neuroinflammation, resulting in a loss-of-function endosomal-lysosomal aberration, thus favoring a proinflammatory microglial phenotype [57].”
Podvin, S., Jones, A. C., Liu, Q., Aulston, B. D., Ransom, L., Ames, J., Shen, G., Lietz, C. B., Jiang, Z., O’Donoghue, A. J., et al. (2020) · Molecular & Cellular Proteomics · doi:10.1074/mcp.ra120.002079 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Immune Modulation in the Treatment of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Review of Clinical Trials
Khalid, S. I., Ampie, L., Kelly, R. M., Ladha, S. S., & Dardis, C. (2017) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00486 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“In neurons, the transcribed C9orf72 RNA and the translation of useless dipeptides from the expanded repeat both appear to contribute to susceptibility to inflammation and thus degeneration (8).”
BackgroundRNA Binding Proteins and the Pathogenesis of Frontotemporal Lobar Degeneration
Hofmann, J. W., Seeley, W. W., & Huang, E. J. (2018) · Annual Review of Pathology Mechanisms of Disease · doi:10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012955 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Section 4 provides further discussions on the newly discovered roles of GRN and C9orf72 in microglia and the brain innate immunity system (17, 18).”
BackgroundRaikwar, S. P., Kikkeri, N. S., Sakuru, R. C., Saeed, D., Zahoor, H., Premkumar, K., Mentor, S., Thangavel, R., Dubova, I., Ahmed, M. E., et al. (2019) · Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s11481-019-09849-y · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Hybertson, B. M., Gao, B., Bose, S. K., & McCord, J. M. (2019) · Antioxidants · doi:10.3390/antiox8050119 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“While the relationship to ALS is still a bit murky, Lall and Baloh [101] have reviewed several models, one of which is based on the 50% under expression of C9orf72 observed in frontal cortex of ALS affected individuals, and the observations that C9orf72 deletion or knockdown in two animal models leads to motor neuron…”
BackgroundTripathi, S., Shree, B., Mohapatra, S., Swati, S., Basu, A., & Sharma, V. (2021) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-020-02268-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Glial Cells and Brain Diseases: Inflammasomes as Relevant Pathological Entities
Martínez, E. M., Díaz‐Muñoz, M., & Vázquez‐Cuevas, F. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2022.929529 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Eitan, C., Siany, A., Barkan, E., Olender, T., van Eijk, K. R., Moisse, M., Farhan, S. M. K., Danino, Y. M., Yanowski, E., Marmor-Kollet, H., et al. (2022) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-022-01040-6 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
He, D., Xu, Y. C., Liu, M., & Cui, L. (2023) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2023.0519 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“Under normal physiological conditions, microglia typically eliminate TDP-43 via phagocytosis, whereas in its absence, a distinctive sequence of events that involves TDP-43 nucleocytoplasmic redistribution and neurodegeneration occurs, as observed in vivo using zebrafish spinal cord imaging [109].”
BackgroundSenescent-like Blood Lymphocytes and Disease Progression in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Yildiz, O., Schroth, J., Tree, T., Turner, M. R., Shaw, P. J., Henson, S. M., & Malaspina, A. (2023) · Neurology Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1212/nxi.0000000000200042 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Critically, other alterations observed in aging and senescence are aligned with brain-specific changes seen in ALS, including a disturbed autophagy/ lysosomal protein degradation, altered RNA splicing, and errors in nuclear-cytoplasmic transport.(15-18) We can therefore hypothesize a potential role for cell senescence…”
BackgroundMeszlényi, V., Patai, R., Polgár, T. F., Nógrádi, B., Körmöczy, L., Kristóf, R., Spisák, K., Tripolszki, K., Széll, M., Obál, I., et al. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21155566 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Mutations in this gene have a strong immune/inflammatory effect due to a generalized systemic pro-inflammatory state, which initiates autoimmunity-related degenerative pathways and microglia activation in the C9ORF72 knock-out model of ALS [59], without a regression of the motor function [60].”
BackgroundBennett, J. P., Keeney, P. M., & Brohawn, D. G. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.00235 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Bolsewig, K., Hok-A-Hin, Y. S., Sepe, F. N., Boonkamp, L., Jacobs, D., Bellomo, G., Paoletti, F. P., Vanmechelen, E., Teunissen, C. E., Parnetti, L., et al. (2022) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220318 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Exploring Links Between Psychosis and Frontotemporal Dementia Using Multimodal Machine Learning
Koutsouleris, N., Pantelis, C., Velakoulis, D., McGuire, P. K., Dwyer, D., Urquijo-Castro, M. F., Paul, R., Dong, S., Popovic, D., Oeztuerk, O. F., et al. (2022) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.2075 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Jagaraj, C. J., Parakh, S., & Atkin, J. D. (2021) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2020.581950 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Furthermore, whilst loss of C9orf72 in mice models disturbs microglial function, resulting in age-related neuroinflammation, this was not sufficient to cause neurodegeneration in C9orf72 knockout mice (Lall and Baloh, 2017).”
BackgroundTargeting TREM2 for Parkinson’s Disease: Where to Go?
Li, X., & Zhang, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.795036 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Costa, J., Streich, L., Pinto, S., Pronto‐Laborinho, A. C., Nimtz, M., Conradt, H. S., & de Carvalho, M. A. (2019) · Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s12035-019-1482-9 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
The role of immune-mediated alterations and disorders in ALS disease
Rodrigues Lima-Junior, J., Sulzer, D., Lindestam Arlehamn, C. S., & Sette, A. (2021) · Human Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.humimm.2021.01.017 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Astrocytes are found in postmortem brain tissue, in the subcortical white matter and spinal cord of both SALS and FALS patients, suggesting that astrocytes respond to CNS injury (40,41).”
BackgroundInfluentialFunctional microglia neurotransmitters in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Volonté, C., Amadio, S., Fabbrizio, P., & Apolloni, S. (2019) · Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.04.014 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Trageser, K. J., Smith, C., Herman, F. J., Ono, K., & Pasinetti, G. M. (2019) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01298 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
de Soysa, Y., Therrien, M., Walker, A. C., & Stevens, B. (2022) · Seminars in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.smim.2022.101651 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Negative regulation of TREM2-mediated C9orf72 poly-GA clearance by the NLRP3 inflammasome
Shu, X., Chen, W., Tu, W.-Y., Zhong, K., Qi, S., Wang, A., Bai, L., Zhang, S.-X., Luo, B., Xu, Z., et al. (2023) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2023.112133 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
de Sá, R. V., Sudrià-Lopez, E., Luna, M. C., Harschnitz, O., van den Heuvel, D. M. A., Kling, S., Vonk, D., Westeneng, H., Karst, H., Bloemenkamp, L. M., et al. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-51676-0 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Microglia are the resident immune cells of the CNS and are linked to various neu-rodegenerativedisorders, includingALS 57,58 .”
Stem cell transplantation for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Baloh, R. H., Glass, J. D., & Svendsen, C. N. (2018) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/wco.0000000000000598 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationZhao, W., Liu, Z., Wu, J., Liu, A., & Yan, J. (2025) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/nrr.nrr-d-24-01343 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“These cases are commonly referred to as “ALS-FTD spectrum disorders” (Lall and Baloh, 2017).”
Thrombin and the Coag-Inflammatory Nexus in Neurotrauma, ALS, and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders
Festoff, B. W., & Citron, B. A. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00059 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“This situation is fundamentally the same for neuroinflammation in ALS— that is, is it cause or effect? The findings that the C9orf72 expansions are also associated with myeloid cell abnormalities and early BBB dysfunction supports the role of these processes in pathogenesis (107, 236).”
BackgroundInfluentialLan, Y., Sullivan, P. M., & Hu, F. (2019) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2019.1569914 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“However, autoimmunity strongly associates with ALS-FTLD [32].”
InfluentialFredi, M., Cavazzana, I., Biasiotto, G., Filosto, M., Padovani, A., Monti, E., Tincani, A., Franceschini, F., & Zanella, I. (2019) · NeuroMolecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12017-019-08528-8 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Associations between autoimmune diseases and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: a register-based study
Cui, C., Longinetti, E., Larsson, H., Andersson, J., Yudi Pawitan, Y., Piehl, F., & Fang, F. (2020) · Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Degeneration · doi:10.1080/21678421.2020.1861022 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Glial Cell Dysfunction in C9orf72-Related Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis and Frontotemporal Dementia
Ghasemi, M., Keyhanian, K., & Douthwright, C. L. (2021) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells10020249 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“, corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide, azathioprine, intravenous immunoglobulins, and plasmapheresis) have failed to show any efficacy in ALS patients [133] makes this area of research still challenging.”
BackgroundFu, R., Tsai, C.-W., Chiu, S., Liu, S., Chiang, Y.-T., Kuo, Y.-H., Shyu, W., & Lin, S. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11193128 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“C9-ALS has been shown to be closely related to the neuroinflammation of microglial cells [48].”
BackgroundLee, S., Jun, Y., Linares, G. R., Butler, B., Yuva-Adyemir, Y., Moore, J. E., Krishnan, G., Ruiz-Juarez, B., Santana, M., Pons, M., et al. (2023) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2023.02.029 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Moreover, loss of C9ORF72 protein function may alter immune cell function.(43) It will be interesting to investigate how poly(GR) and the partial loss of C9ORF72 synergize to dysregulate the AMP gene pathway in neurons and glial cells.”
Younger, D. S., & Brown, R. H. (2023) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-98817-9.00031-4 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Inflammatory neuropsychiatric disorders and COVID-19 neuroinflammation
Tang, S. W., Helmeste, D. M., & Leonard, B. E. (2021) · Acta Neuropsychiatrica · doi:10.1017/neu.2021.13 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“, 2008), in which activated microglia are prominent (Lall and Baloh 2017).”
BackgroundVolonté, C., Apolloni, S., & Sabatelli, M. (2019) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.06.006 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Nataf, S., Guillen, M., & Pays, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.02704 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Stem Cell Transplantation for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
Zhu, Q., & Lu, P. (2020) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-4370-8_6 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Increased Microglial CSF1R Expression in the SIV/Macaque Model of HIV CNS Disease
Knight, A. C., Brill, S. A., Queen, S. E., Tarwater, P. M., & Mankowski, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1093/jnen/nlx115 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Animals were either (1) mock inoculated with Lactated Ringers Solution, (2) inoculated intravenously with the neurovirulent molecular clone SIV/17E-Fr and the immunosuppressive swarm SIV/DeltaB670 (SIV), or (3) SIV inoculated and treated with an ART regimen (SIVþART) (20–2).”
MethodBarbalace, M. C., Freschi, M., Rinaldi, I., Mazzara, E., Maraldi, T., Malaguti, M., Prata, C., Maggi, F., Petrelli, R., Hrelia, S., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms242316601 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cerebellum in neurodegenerative diseases: Advances, challenges, and prospects
Liu, G., Yang, C., Wang, X., Chen, X., Cai, H., & Le, W. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.111194 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“113 Autopsy results of patients with FUS mutations show FUS expression and neurodegenerative changes in the cerebellum.”
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Inflammatory checkpoints in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: From biomarkers to therapeutic targets
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“As a result, neuroinflammation is considered a major contributor to neuronal dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS/FTD (Lall and Baloh, 2017; Beers and Appel, 2019; McCauley and Baloh, 2019; Olesen et al., 2020).”
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“…autophagy, where the collapse of proteostasis machinery leads to the accumulation of misfolded proteins (Bendotti et al., 2012; Cirulli et al., 2015), or altered systemic immunity resulting in neuroinflammation (Gleason, Ordureau, Gourlay, Arthur, & Cohen, 2011; Hiscott, 2007; Lall & Baloh, 2017).”
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- Authors
- Lall, D., & Baloh, R. H.
- Affiliations
- Regenerative Medicine Institute (MX)
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Baloh, Robert H.
- ORCID
- Baloh, Robert H.
- Venue
- Journal of Clinical Investigation
- Published
- 2017-07-24
- Volume
- 127
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 3250-3258
- ISSN
- 0021-9738 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-8238
- PMC
- PMC5669558
- OpenAlex
- W2736657964
- Cited by
- 175
- References
- 150
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 2.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Clinical Investigation (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Target ALS
- Cedars-Sinai Medical Center
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS097545, R01NS069669)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pathology and Forensic Medicine › Multiple Sclerosis Research Studies
- Keywords
- microglia, C9orf72, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, frontotemporal dementia, neuroinflammation, autoimmunity, myeloid cells, neurodegeneration, pathogenesis, systemic immunity
- MeSH terms
- Superoxide Dismutase-1, C9orf72 Protein, Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis, Animals, DNA-Binding Proteins, Humans, Inflammation, Motor Neurons, Mutation, Phenotype, Proteins, Autoimmunity, Microglia, Disease Progression, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Myeloid Cells, Mice, Frontotemporal Dementia
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