CESM1(WACCM) Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Large Ensemble Project
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Abstract This paper describes the Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Large Ensemble (GLENS) project, which promotes the use of a unique model dataset, performed with the Community Earth System Model, with the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model as its atmospheric component [CESM1(WACCM)], to investigate global and regional impacts of geoengineering. The performed simulations were designed to achieve multiple simultaneous climate goals, by strategically placing sulfur injections at four different locations in the stratosphere, unlike many earlier studies that targeted globally averaged surface temperature by placing injections in regions at or around the equator. This advanced approach reduces some of the previously found adverse effects of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering, including uneven cooling between the poles and the equator and shifts in tropical precipitation. The 20-member ensemble increases the ability to distinguish between forced changes and changes due to climate variability in global and regional climate variables in the coupled atmosphere, land, sea ice, and ocean system. We invite the broader community to perform in-depth analyses of climate-related impacts and to identify processes that lead to changes in the climate system as the result of a strategic application of stratospheric aerosol geoengineering.
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SAI has been shown in climate model simulations to reduce global mean surface temperatures relative to scenarios without such intervention.
“This approach draws on the observed cooling effects of large explosive volcanic eruptions (McCormick et al., 1995; Robock, 2000) and has been shown in climate model simulations to reduce global mean surface temperatures relative to scenarios without such intervention (Tilmes et al., 2018; Kravitz et al., 2015).”
From Air quality impacts of stratospheric aerosol injections are likely small and mainly driven by changes in climate, not aerosol settling (2026) · cites this paper as Tilmes et al., 2018
Longitude of injection has been assumed to be somewhat arbitrary in most simulations, with longitudinal transport evenly dispersing aerosols zonally.
“Longitude of injection has been assumed to be somewhat arbitrary in most simulations2,25, with longitudinal transport evenly dispersing aerosols zonally.”
From Engineering and logistical concerns add practical limitations to stratospheric aerosol injection strategies (2025) · cites this paper as [25]
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Cheng, W., MacMartin, D. G., Kravitz, B., Visioni, D., Bednarz, E., Xu, Y., Luo, Y. M., Huang, L., Hu, Y., Staten, P. W., et al. (2022) · npj Climate and Atmospheric Science · doi:10.1038/s41612-022-00254-6 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Self-citationPotential for perceived failure of stratospheric aerosol injection deployment
Keys, P. W., Barnes, E. A., Diffenbaugh, N. S., Hurrell, J. W., & Bell, C. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2210036119 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Dependence of strategic solar climate intervention on background scenario and model physics
Fasullo, J., & Richter, J. H. (2023) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-163-2023 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationSchneider, T., Kaul, C., & Pressel, K. G. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2003730117 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Solar Geoengineering in the Polar Regions: A Review
Duffey, A., Irvine, P. J., Tsamados, M. C., & Stroeve, J. C. (2023) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2023ef003679 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Storm Track Changes in the Middle East and North Africa Under Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering
Karami, K., Tilmes, S., Muri, H., & Mousavi, S. V. (2020) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2020gl086954 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationQuantifying the Efficiency of Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering at Different Altitudes
Lee, W. R., Visioni, D., Bednarz, E. M., MacMartin, D. G., Kravitz, B., & Tilmes, S. (2023) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2023gl104417 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationGlobal streamflow and flood response to stratospheric aerosol geoengineering
Wei, L., Ji, D., Miao, C., Muri, H., & Moore, J. C. (2018) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-18-16033-2018 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Odoulami, R. C., New, M. G., Wolski, P., Guillemet, G., Pinto, I., Lennard, C., Muri, H., & Tilmes, S. (2020) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abbf13 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of tropical volcanic eruptions in exacerbating Indian droughts
Fadnavis, S. S., Muller, R. H., Chakraborty, T., Sabin, T. P., Laakso, A., Rap, A., Griessbach, S. G., Vernier, J., & Tilmes, S. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-81566-0 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationTropical Pacific climate variability under solar geoengineering: impacts on ENSO extremes
Malik, A., Nowack, P. J., Haigh, J. D., Cao, L., Atique, L., & Plancherel, Y. (2020) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-20-15461-2020 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Impacts of Solar Radiation Management on Hydro-Climatic Extremes in Southeast Asia
Tan, M. L., Juneng, L., Kuswanto, H., Xuan, H., & Fei, Z. (2023) · Water · doi:10.3390/w15061089 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Siegert, M. J., Sevestre, H., Bentley, M. J., Brigham-Grette, J., Burgess, H., Buzzard, S., Cavitte, M. G. P., Chown, S. L., Colleoni, F., DeConto, R. M., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Science · doi:10.3389/fsci.2025.1527393 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Patel, T. D., Odoulami, R. C., Pinto, I., Egbebiyi, T. S., Lennard, C., Abiodun, B. J., & New, M. G. (2023) · Environmental Research Climate · doi:10.1088/2752-5295/acdaec · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Geoengineering on the Summer Climate Over East Asia
Liu, Z., Lang, X., & Jiang, D. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2021jd035049 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Impact of the Latitude of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on the Southern Annular Mode
Bednarz, E., Visioni, D., Richter, J. H., Butler, A. H., & MacMartin, D. G. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl100353 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationXu, Y., Lin, L., Tilmes, S., Dagon, K., Xia, L., Diao, C., Cheng, W., MacMartin, D. G., Wang, Z., Simpson, I., et al. (2020) · Earth System Dynamics · doi:10.5194/esd-11-673-2020 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationA subpolar-focused stratospheric aerosol injection deployment scenario
Smith, W., Bhattarai, U., MacMartin, D. G., Lee, W., Visioni, D., Kravitz, B., & Rice, C. V. (2022) · Environmental Research Communications · doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ac8cd3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationRobrecht, S., Vogel, B., Tilmes, S., & Muller, R. H. (2021) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-21-2427-2021 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationToward practical stratospheric aerosol albedo modification: Solar-powered lofting
Gao, R. S., Rosenlof, K. H., Kärcher, B., Tilmes, S., Toon, O. B., Maloney, C., & Yu, P. (2021) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abe3416 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationCamilloni, I. A., Montroull, N. B., Gulizia, C. N., & Saurral, R. I. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.763983 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Detecting Changes in Global Extremes Under the GLENS‐SAI Climate Intervention Strategy
Barnes, E. A., Hurrell, J. W., & Sun, L. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl100198 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Stratospheric aerosol injection may impact global systems and human health outcomes
Tracy, S. M., Moch, J. M., Eastham, S. D., & Buonocore, J. J. (2022) · Elementa Science of the Anthropocene · doi:10.1525/elementa.2022.00047 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Optimal climate intervention scenarios for crop production vary by nation
Clark, B., Xia, L., Robock, A. D., Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., Visioni, D., & Rabin, S. S. (2023) · Nature Food · doi:10.1038/s43016-023-00853-3 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationGoddard, P. B., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Visioni, D., Bednarz, E., & Lee, W. (2023) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2023jd039434 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationResponse of Surface Ultraviolet and Visible Radiation to Stratospheric SO2 Injections
Madronich, S., Tilmes, S., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., & Richter, J. H. (2018) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos9110432 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationAn approach to sulfate geoengineering with surface emissions of carbonyl sulfide
Quaglia, I., Visioni, D., Pitari, G., & Kravitz, B. (2022) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-22-5757-2022 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationHueholt, D. M., Barnes, E. A., Hurrell, J. W., & Morrison, A. L. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47656-z · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Obahoundjé, S., Bi, V. H. N., Diédhiou, A., Kravitz, B., & Moore, J. C. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160806 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationRoose, S., Bala, G., Krishnamohan, K. S., Cao, L., & Caldeira, K. (2023) · Climate Dynamics · doi:10.1007/s00382-023-06799-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
A protocol for model intercomparison of impacts of marine cloud brightening climate intervention
Rasch, P. J., Hirasawa, H., Wu, M., Doherty, S. J., Wood, R., Wang, H., Jones, A., Haywood, J., & Singh, H. (2024) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-17-7963-2024 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
How large is the design space for stratospheric aerosol geoengineering?
Zhang, Y., MacMartin, D. G., Visioni, D., & Kravitz, B. (2022) · Earth System Dynamics · doi:10.5194/esd-13-201-2022 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationMousavi, S. V., Karami, K., Tilmes, S., Muri, H., Xia, L., & Rezaei, A. (2023) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-10677-2023 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationImpact of solar geoengineering on wildfires in the 21st century in CESM2/WACCM6
Tang, W., Tilmes, S., Lawrence, D. M., Li, F., He, C., Emmons, L. K., Buchholz, R. R., & Xia, L. (2023) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-5467-2023 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationSolar Geoengineering: History, Methods, Governance, Prospects
Parson, E. A., & Keith, D. W. (2024) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-112321-081911 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
How does the latitude of stratospheric aerosol injection affect the climate in UKESM1?
Henry, M., Bednarz, E., & Haywood, J. (2024) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-24-13253-2024 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Future changes in atmospheric rivers over East Asia under stratospheric aerosol intervention
Liang, J., & Haywood, J. (2023) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-1687-2023 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Tan, M. L., Tew, Y. L., Juneng, L., Bala, G., Tye, M. R., Chang, C. K., & Muhamad, N. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174817 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Climate engineering needs a clean bill of health
Carlson, C. J., & Trisos, C. H. (2018) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0294-7 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Climate Response to Latitudinal and Altitudinal Distribution of Stratospheric Sulfate Aerosols
Zhao, M., Cao, L., Bala, G., & Duan, L. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2021jd035379 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Li, S. H., Irwin, P., Lounis, Z., Attar, A., Dale, J., Gibbons, M., & Beaulieu, S. (2022) · Natural Hazards Review · doi:10.1061/(asce)nh.1527-6996.0000572 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Chen, C., Richter, J. H., Lee, W., MacMartin, D. G., & Kravitz, B. (2024) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2024gl108860 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationJiang, J. K., Xia, Y. P., Cao, L., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Fu, J., & Jiang, G. (2024) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2023ef004364 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationImpact of Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering on Meteorological Droughts in West Africa
Alamou, A. E., Obada, E., Biao, E. I., Zandagba, E. B. J., Da‐Allada, C. Y., Bonou, F., Baloïtcha, E., Tilmes, S., & Irvine, P. J. (2022) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos13020234 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationAssessing Outcomes in Stratospheric Aerosol Injection Scenarios Shortly After Deployment
Hueholt, D. M., Barnes, E. A., Hurrell, J. W., Richter, J. H., & Sun, L. (2023) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2023ef003488 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationParson, E. A., Buck, H. J., Jinnah, S., Moreno‐Cruz, J., & Nicholson, S. (2024) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Climate Change · doi:10.1002/wcc.903 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Zhao, M., & Cao, L. (2022) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2022ef003288 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
A mission-driven research program on solar geoengineering could promote justice and legitimacy
Morrow, D. R. (2019) · Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy · doi:10.1080/13698230.2020.1694220 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Pereira, L. M., Morrow, D. R., Aquila, V., Beckage, B., Beckbesinger, S., Beukes, L., Buck, H. J., Carlson, C. J., Geden, O., Jones, A. P., et al. (2021) · Ecology and Society · doi:10.5751/es-12856-260430 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
The Overlooked Role of the Stratosphere Under a Solar Constant Reduction
Bednarz, E. M., Visioni, D., Banerjee, A., Braesicke, P., Kravitz, B., & MacMartin, D. G. (2022) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2022gl098773 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
- Authors
- Tilmes, S., Richter, J. H., Kravitz, B., MacMartin, D. G., Mills, M. J., Simpson, I. R., Glanville, A. S., Fasullo, J. T., Phillips, A. S., Lamarque, J.-F., Tribbia, J., Edwards, J., Mickelson, S., & Ghosh, S.
- Affiliations
- NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research (US)
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (US)
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- Climate and Global Dynamics Laboratory, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
- ORCID
- Venue
- Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
- Publisher
- American Meteorological Society
- Published
- 2018-11
- Volume
- 99
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 2361-2371
- ISSN
- 0003-0007 (ISSN-L)
- 1520-0477
- OpenAlex
- W2803566343
- Cited by
- 296
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 27 · 2025: 40 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 54 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 12.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society (publishedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate variability and models
- Keywords
- stratospheric aerosol geoengineering, solar geoengineering, large ensemble simulations, regional climate impacts, climate variability
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