Potential ecological impacts of climate intervention by reflecting sunlight to cool Earth
Open accessAbstract
As the effects of anthropogenic climate change become more severe, several approaches for deliberate climate intervention to reduce or stabilize Earth's surface temperature have been proposed. Solar radiation modification (SRM) is one potential approach to partially counteract anthropogenic warming by reflecting a small proportion of the incoming solar radiation to increase Earth's albedo. While climate science research has focused on the predicted climate effects of SRM, almost no studies have investigated the impacts that SRM would have on ecological systems. The impacts and risks posed by SRM would vary by implementation scenario, anthropogenic climate effects, geographic region, and by ecosystem, community, population, and organism. Complex interactions among Earth's climate system and living systems would further affect SRM impacts and risks. We focus here on stratospheric aerosol intervention (SAI), a well-studied and relatively feasible SRM scheme that is likely to have a large impact on Earth's surface temperature. We outline current gaps in knowledge about both helpful and harmful predicted effects of SAI on ecological systems. Desired ecological outcomes might also inform development of future SAI implementation scenarios. In addition to filling these knowledge gaps, increased collaboration between ecologists and climate scientists would identify a common set of SAI research goals and improve the communication about potential SAI impacts and risks with the public. Without this collaboration, forecasts of SAI impacts will overlook potential effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services for humanity.
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Reduced transpirational losses of water by vegetation, resulting from projected cooling by stratospheric aerosol injection and continuing high atmospheric CO2 concentrations, could leave more ground water available to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
“Reduced transpirational losses of water by vegetation, resulting from projected cooling by SAI and continuing high atmospheric CO2 concentrations, could leave more ground water available to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems [61].”
From Environmental consequences of interacting effects of changes in stratospheric ozone, ultraviolet radiation, and climate: UNEP Environmental Effects Assessment Panel, Update 2024 (2025) · cites this paper as [61]
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Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHigher levels and swifter deployment of SAI would mean greater potential for disastrous impacts.
“Higher levels and swifter deployment of SAI would mean greater potential for disastrous impacts (Trisos et al., 2018; Zarnetske et al., 2021).”
From A Fate Worse Than Warming? Stratospheric Aerosol Injection and Global Catastrophic Risk (2021) · cites this paper as Zarnetske et al., 2021
Plant communities could transform their structure, traits, and geographical range, particularly under larger swifter SAI deployments.
“Plant communities could transform their structure, traits, and geographical range, particularly under larger swifter SAI deployments (Zarnetske et al., 2021).”
From A Fate Worse Than Warming? Stratospheric Aerosol Injection and Global Catastrophic Risk (2021) · cites this paper as Zarnetske et al., 2021
There are multiple potential objectives of SAI deployment, ranging from temperature reduction to precipitation management to biodiversity conservation.
“There are multiple potential objectives of SAI deployment, ranging from temperature reduction (of different extents), precipitation impact management, to biodiversity conservation (Lee et al., 2020; Zarnetske et al., 2021).”
From A Fate Worse Than Warming? Stratospheric Aerosol Injection and Global Catastrophic Risk (2021) · cites this paper as Zarnetske et al., 2021
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Self-citationEstimating global agricultural effects of geoengineering using volcanic eruptions
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Self-citationA multi-model assessment of regional climate disparities caused by solar geoengineering
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Self-citationWarming assessment of the bottom-up Paris Agreement emissions pledges
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Self-citationStratospheric sulfate aerosol geoengineering could alter the high-latitude seasonal cycle
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Stratospheric sulfate geoengineering could enhance the terrestrial photosynthesis rate
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Self-citationErosion of community diversity and stability by herbivore removal under warming
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Self-citationCoral bleaching under unconventional scenarios of climate warming and ocean acidification
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Impacts of stratospheric sulfate geoengineering on tropospheric ozone
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Self-citationSeasonal Injection Strategies for Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering
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Self-citationGrowth and community responses of alpine dwarf shrubs to in situ CO2 enrichment and soil warming
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Self-citationSeasonally Modulated Stratospheric Aerosol Geoengineering Alters the Climate Outcomes
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Self-citationShell Condition and Survival of Puget Sound Pteropods Are Impaired by Ocean Acidification Conditions
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Measuring and Improving Eco-efficiency Using Data Envelopment Analysis
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Ecological resilience of Arctic marine food webs to climate change
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The Strategic Value of Geoengineering Research
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Persistent polar ocean warming in a strategically geoengineered climate
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Self-citationSearching for Biotic Multipliers of Climate Change
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Self-citationThe hard truths of climate change — by the numbers
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Stopping the flood: could we use targeted geoengineering to mitigate sea level rise?
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Response of Surface Ultraviolet and Visible Radiation to Stratospheric SO2 Injections
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Self-citationTropical coral reef habitat in a geoengineered, high‐CO2 world
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Solar geoengineering as part of an overall strategy for meeting the 1.5°C Paris target
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Self-citationThe need for carbon-emissions-driven climate projections in CMIP7
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Self-citationA Fate Worse Than Warming? Stratospheric Aerosol Injection and Global Catastrophic Risk
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Mission-driven research for stratospheric aerosol geoengineering
MacMartin, D. G., & Kravitz, B. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1811022116 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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Self-citationBednarz, E. M., Visioni, D., Kravitz, B., Jones, A., Haywood, J. M., Richter, J., MacMartin, D. G., & Braesicke, P. (2023) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-23-687-2023 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationHydrological Consequences of Solar Geoengineering
Ricke, K., Wan, J., Saenger, M., & Lutsko, N. J. (2023) · Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences · doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-031920-083456 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
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Geoengineering, climate change and ecological security
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Ozone response modeling to NOx and VOC emissions: Examining machine learning models
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Taming Gaia 2.0: Earth system law in the ruptured Anthropocene
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Side Effects of Sulfur‐Based Geoengineering Due To Absorptivity of Sulfate Aerosols
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The limits of renewable energy
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Stratospheric aerosol injection may impact global systems and human health outcomes
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“Cooling credits” are not a viable climate solution
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Managing the risks of missing international climate targets
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Potential Impacts of Climate Interventions on Marine Ecosystems
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We Must Stop Fossil Fuel Emissions to Protect Permafrost Ecosystems
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The Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on Extreme Fire Weather Risk
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Flawed Emergency Intervention: Slow Ocean Response to Abrupt Stratospheric Aerosol Injection
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18 Politically relevant solar geoengineering scenarios
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Bolsen, T., Palm, R. I., & Luke, R. E. (2023) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-023-03575-4 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Solar geoengineering and carbon removal significantly lower economic climate damages
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Solar geoengineering research in the global public interest: A proposal for how to do it
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Ecological impacts of temperature overshoot: The journey and the destination
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Wang, O.-F., Liang, J., Gu, Y.-C., Haywood, J., Chen, Y., Fang, C., & Wang, Q. (2024) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-24-12355-2024 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Haywood, J., Boucher, O., Lennard, C., Storelvmo, T., Tilmes, S., & Visioni, D. (2025) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2025.1507479 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationThe interaction of solar radiation modification with Earth system tipping elements
Futerman, G., Adhikari, M., Duffey, A., Fan, Y., Irvine, P. J., Gurevitch, J., & Wieners, C. (2025) · Earth System Dynamics · doi:10.5194/esd-16-939-2025 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationResearch criteria towards an interdisciplinary Stratospheric Aerosol Intervention assessment
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Glitter Belt Global Measurement System: Indian Ocean Component Preparation
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Assessing populations exposed to climate change: a focus on Africa in a global context
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The Feasibility and Governance of Cyclone Interventions
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Models and scenarios for solar radiation modification need to include human perceptions of risk
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Self-citationAssessing the Impact of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection on US Convective Weather Environments
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A reversible mid-stratospheric architecture to reduce insolation
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Mitigating ice sheets and mountain glaciers melt with geoengineering
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Thirty years of forest productivity in a mountainous landscape: The Yin and Yang of topography
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Responsibility Under Uncertainty: Which Climate Decisions Matter Most?
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Effects of climate engineering on agriculture
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Visioni, D., Quaglia, I., & Steinke, I. (2024) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2024gl108314 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationZhang, S., Naïk, V., Paynter, D. J., Tilmes, S., & John, J. G. (2024) · Geophysical Research Letters · doi:10.1029/2024gl113532 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationSouth Atlantic subtropical anticyclone responses to stratospheric aerosol injection
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The social costs of solar radiation management
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Bad science and good intentions prevent effective climate actionPreprint
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Self-citationSubtropical Marine Cloud Brightening Suppresses the El Niño–Southern Oscillation
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Self-citationConducting more inclusive solar geoengineering research: A feminist science framework
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A Numerical Modeling Study on the Earth’s Surface Brightening Effect of Cirrus Thinning
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An Aerospace Approach To Counter Climate ChangePreprint
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Comparative ecological responses to cloud seeding in three forested basins of South Korea
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What would Aldo Leopold think about geoengineering?
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Beyond climate velocity: Indicators for ecological impacts of late, sudden SRM
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Self-citationWildfire Detection Using HALE Meteorology Vehicles
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15. A Fate Worse Than Warming?
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Design and Simulation Of A Solar-Powered UAV For Meteorology
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Self-citationMars, A Stepping‐Stone World, Macro‐Engineered
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Ecological geochemistry: theory, practice and perspectives
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- Authors
- Zarnetske, P. L., Gurevitch, J., Franklin, J., Groffman, P. M., Harrison, C. S., Hellmann, J. J., Hoffman, F. M., Kothari, S., Robock, A., Tilmes, S., Visioni, D., Wu, J., Xia, L., & Yang, C.-E.
- Affiliations
- Michigan State University (US)
- Stony Brook University (US)
- University of California, Riverside (US)
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory (US)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- NSF National Center for Atmospheric Research (US)
- Cornell University (US)
- University of Hong Kong (HK)
- University of Tennessee at Knoxville (US)
- Corresponding author
- Franklin, Janet
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2021-04-05
- Volume
- 118
- Issue
- 15
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC8053992
- OpenAlex
- W3145236039
- Cited by
- 119
- References
- 150
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 12 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 8.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CUNY Academic Works (City University of New York) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Civil War Book Review (submittedVersion)
- ScholarWorks @ UTRGV (The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1937619, 1937699, 1617844, 1853697)
- U.S. Department of Energy (SC-23 - RUBISCO SFA, TES SFA)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Environmental Impact
- Keywords
- solar geoengineering, stratospheric aerosol injection, geoengineering, ecological impacts, climate intervention, Earth albedo, anthropogenic climate change, biodiversity, ecosystem services, ecological risk, climate-ecosystem interactions
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