Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions

May combine two claims.

Conditional cash transfer studies differ importantly in design, and the optimal conditions are uncertain.

“There are important design differences across the various CCT studies and we are not certain of the optimal conditions (Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012).”

• cites Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

State Earned Income Tax Credits increased birth weights and reduced maternal smoking.

“Similarly, a study using changes in state EITC as a natural experiment found that state EITCs increased birth weights and reduced maternal smoking (Strully, Rehkopf, & Xuan, 2010).”

• cites Strully, Rehkopf, & Xuan, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Three years into the Moving to Opportunity project, criminal victimization was lower and the health of parents and sons was better in the treatment group.

“Three years later, criminal victimization was lower and the health of parents and sons was better in the treatment group (Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004).”

• cites Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The Moving to Opportunity program was too small to affect racial segregation and poverty concentration in participating cities and did not assess or address institutional or individual discrimination mechanisms contributing to residential segregation.

“However, the MTO program was too small to affect racial segregation and the concentration of poverty in the participating cities and did not assess or address either the institutional or individual mechanisms of discrimination that contribute to residential segregation (Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004).”

• cites Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004Not checked yet

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In the Yonkers housing intervention, residents randomized to move to better public housing reported higher employment, lower welfare use, better health, less substance abuse, neighborhood disorder and violence two years later than non-movers.

“In the Yonkers housing intervention, for example, public housing residents randomized to move to newly constructed public housing with better conditions reported higher rates of employment and lower levels of welfare use and also better health, less substance abuse, neighborhood disorder and violence two years later compared to families that had not moved (Fauth, Levanthal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004).”

• cites Fauth, Levanthal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Improving neighborhood conditions is associated with better self-reported health, although health outcome assessment in housing intervention studies has been limited.

“A review of housing interventions that have been evaluated for their health impact concluded that although the assessment of health outcomes has been limited in these studies, improving neighborhood conditions has been associated with better self-reported measures of health (Acevedo-Garcia et al., 2004).”

• cites Acevedo-Garcia et al., 2004Not checked yet

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The Women's Infant and Children's program increased average birth weight and reduced the incidence of low birth weight.

“A study of the roll-out of WIC across counties in the U.S. revealed that the program increased average birth weight and reduced the incidence of low birth weight (Hoynes, Page, & Huff Stevens, 2010).”

• cites Hoynes, Page, & Huff Stevens, 2010Not checked yet

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The Earned Income Tax Credit effects on birth weight appeared for both blacks and whites but were larger for blacks.

“These effects were evident for both blacks and whites, but were larger for blacks.”

• cites Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012Not checked yet

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Income from the Earned Income Tax Credit reduced the rate of low birth weight and increased mean birth weight.

“A study using variation in the federal EITC over time and the presence of state EITC’s found that income from EITC reduced the rate of low birth weight and increased mean birth weight (Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012).”

• cites Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Health disparities may be narrowed through three routes: expanding socioeconomic access and resources, lessening cultural racism and its associated stereotypes and prejudice, and buffering racism's harms by strengthening individuals' and communities' ability to improve health.

“This article reviews scientific evidence that suggests that health inequities can be reduced by increasing access to socioeconomic opportunities and resources, reducing cultural racism and its associated, negative images, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination, and minimizing racism’s adverse effects by enhancing the capacity of individuals and communities to improve health.”

May combine two claims.

A review of 13 conditional cash transfer programs in low and middle income countries found they increased preventive health service use and immunization, improved nutritional and health outcomes, and encouraged healthy behaviors.

“A review of 13 CCT programs in low and middle income countries, all using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, found that the programs were effective in increasing the utilization of preventive health services and immunization rates, improving nutritional and health outcomes, and encouraging healthy behaviors (Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012).”

• cites Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The Mexican conditional cash transfer program reduced illness rates and child stunting.

“The program in Mexico in which families had been randomized to receive cash transfers led to reduced illness rates and child stunting (Rawlings & Rubio, 2005)”

• cites Rawlings & Rubio, 2005Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Additional Earned Income Tax Credit income reduced hearing limitations among adults but was not associated with improved self-reported health and functional limitations.

“Another study of the EITC found that additional income reduced hearing limitations among adults, but was not associated with improved self-reported health and functional limitations (Larrimore, 2011).”

• cites Larrimore, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Black women born in 1967-1969 had better adult health status and were less likely to have infants with low birth weight and low APGAR scores than those born 1961-1963.

“Other data reveal that black women born in 1967–1969 had better health status as adults and were less likely to have infants with low-birth weight and low APGAR scores than those born 1961–1963 (Almond & Chay, 2006).”

• cites Almond & Chay, 2006Not checked yet

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Civil Rights policies of the 1960s narrowed the black-white economic gap, with black women benefitting more than black men.

“The Civil Rights policies of the 1960’s narrowed the black-white economic gap with black women benefitting more than black men (Kaplan, Ranjit, & Burgard, 2008).”

• cites Kaplan, Ranjit, & Burgard, 2008Not checked yet

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The Great Smoky Mountain Study provided evidence that income supplements can improve health and reduce health disparities.

“The Great Smoky Mountain Study in North Carolina is a natural experiment that has also provided evidence that income supplements can improve health and reduce health disparities.”

May combine two claims.

A meta-analysis of financial incentives in high income countries found they effectively promote healthy behavior such as short-term reductions in cigarette smoking and drug misuse, with effect size positively related to payment amount.

“A meta-analysis of financial incentives in high income countries reveals that they are effective in promoting healthy behavior such as reducing, at least in the short-term, cigarette smoking and drug misuse, with the size of the effect being positively related to the amount of the financial payment (Marteau, Ashcroft, & Oliver, 2009).”

• cites Marteau, Ashcroft, & Oliver, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Health researchers have given little attention to systematically monitoring de-segregation initiatives and assessing their short-term and long-term educational and health consequences.

“Health researchers have given little attention to systematically monitoring these de-segregation initiatives and to assessing their consequences for short-term and long-term educational and health outcomes.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Eliminating racial differences in test scores could markedly reduce the racial gap in educational attainment and income and consequently reduce racial inequality in health and other outcomes.

“Eliminating racial differences in test scores could markedly reduce the racial gap in educational attainment and income and consequently reduce racial inequality in health and other outcomes.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Black students score lower than white students on standardized tests of reading, vocabulary, mathematics, intelligence, and scholastic aptitude.

May combine two claims.

Integrated schools enhance critical thinking skills for all students and modestly improve academic achievement for black and Hispanic students.

“Integrated schools also enhance critical thinking skills for all students and modestly improve academic achievement for black and Hispanic students.”

• cites Orfield, et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Controlled laboratory experiments show that various affirmative action strategies effectively recruit women to perform in competitive environments and do not cause efficiency losses.

“A series of controlled laboratory experiments show that a variety of affirmative action (preferential treatment) strategies are effective in recruiting women to perform in competitive environments and do not cause any losses in efficiency (Balafoutas & Sutter, 2012).”

• cites Balafoutas & Sutter, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

At age 40, the Perry Preschool intervention group had higher income, education, health insurance coverage and home ownership and lower rates of crime, out-of-wedlock births, and welfare assistance compared to controls.

“At age 40, the intervention group had higher income, education, health insurance coverage and home ownership and lower rates of crime, out-of-wedlock births, and welfare assistance compared to the controls (Muennig, et al., 2009).”

• cites Muennig, et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Active duty military service promotes marriage over cohabitation, increases likelihood of first marriage, and leads to greater marital stability, with these effects greater for blacks than whites.

“Research reveals that in addition to improving SES, active duty military service promotes marriage over cohabitation, increases the likelihood of first marriage, and leads to greater stability of marriage and these effects are greater for blacks than for whites (Teachman, 2007, 2009; Teachman & Tedrow, 2008).”

• cites Teachman, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Teachman, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Teachman & Tedrow, 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Increases in white immigrants' economic and social status over time were accompanied by more positive perceptions by the dominant native-born white population and increases in academic performance.

“However, increases in the economic and social status for white immigrants over time were accompanied by more positive perceptions of these groups by the dominant native-born white population and increases in academic performance (Fischer et al., 1996; Norman, et al., 2001).”

• cites Fischer et al., 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Norman, et al., 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Additional income was associated with increased adolescent obesity among Indian families whose incomes were low before casino income, with no effect among high-income families.

“Additional income was also associated with increased adolescent obesity among Indian families whose incomes were low before the receipt of the casino income with no effect for those families whose income was high (Akee, Simeonova, Copeland, Angold, & Costello, 2010).”

• cites Akee, Simeonova, Copeland, Angold, & Costello, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The income supplement effect on psychiatric disorders appeared only in the youngest cohort, age 12 when supplements began, with no effect in the two older cohorts.

“The effect was seen only in the youngest cohort (age 12 when the supplements began) who had had the longest exposure to the additional income with no effect evident in the two older cohorts (age 14 and age 16 at the initial supplement).”

• cites Costello, Erkanli, Copeland, & Angold, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Additional income received by adolescents was associated with higher education and lower minor criminal offenses in young adulthood and with elimination of racial disparities on both outcomes.

“This study also found that the additional income received by adolescents was associated with higher levels of education and lower incidence of minor criminal offenses in young adulthood and the elimination of racial disparities on both of these outcomes (Akee, Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2010).”

• cites Akee, Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Nurse-Family Partnership program reduces injuries, crime, and substance use in the children.

“The program also reduces injuries, crime, and substance use in the children (Olds, 2006, 2008).”

• cites Olds, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Olds, 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The economic mobility from military service is likely to improve health among adults in military households and to lead to higher academic achievement and better health for their children.

“This economic mobility is likely to have positive effects on the health of the adults in military households and to lead to higher academic achievement and better health for their children.”

May combine two claims.

Financial incentives are more likely to improve health under conditions identified by Lynagh et al.: greater effectiveness with low SES populations, a dose-response relationship, schedules for complex behaviors, close timing of rewards, and greater effectiveness of positive over negative incentives.

“Lynagh et al (2011) have identified conditions under which financial incentives are more likely to lead to improvements in health: they are more effective with low SES populations; there is a dose-response relationship suggesting that the size of the cash payment is important; health behaviors that are complex need a schedule of incentives designed to both initiate and sustain changes, with care”

• cites Lynagh et al (2011)Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Among mothers, the Nurse-Family Partnership program increases work force participation and reduces smoking during pregnancy, subsequent pregnancies, use of public assistance programs and rates of child abuse and neglect.

“Among mothers, the NFP program increases work force participation and reduces smoking during pregnancy, subsequent pregnancies, the use of public assistance programs and rates of child abuse and neglect.”

• cites Olds, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A randomized natural experiment in India on a 1993 law reserving leadership positions for women in randomly selected village councils showed a 20% reduction in the gender gap in parents' aspirations and a 32% reduction in adolescents' aspirations in villages with a female leader.

“A randomized natural experiment in India, examining the effects of a 1993 law that reserved leadership positions for women in randomly selected village councils, showed that there was a reduction in the gender gap in aspirations by 20% in parents and 32% in adolescents, in villages with a female leader compared to those without.”

• cites Beaman, Duflo, Pande, & Topalova, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Greater interracial contact in school enhances tolerance, reduces prejudice and leads to greater awareness of and sympathy for victims of racial discrimination.

“Greater interracial contact in school enhances tolerance, reduces prejudice and leads to greater awareness of and sympathy for victims of racial discrimination.”

• cites Orfield, et al., 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In Mexico, cash transfers protected children from being taken out of school, serving as a safety-net that ensured long-term human capital benefits linked to completing education.

“In Mexico, cash transfers protected children from being taken out of school, with the CCT program serving as a safety-net that ensured the long-term human capital benefits that are linked to completing education (de Janvry, Finan, Sadoulet, & Vakis, 2006).”

• cites de Janvry, Finan, Sadoulet, & Vakis, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Dismantling residential segregation is one strategy that can reduce racial prejudice and improve education.

“Dismantling residential segregation is one strategy that can reduce racial prejudice and improve education (Orfield, Frankenberg, & Garces, 2008).”

• cites Orfield, Frankenberg, & Garces, 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

At age 10, children who attended the Perry Preschool Program did not have higher IQ scores than controls but had higher test scores.

“At age 10, children who attended the preschool did not have higher IQ scores than the controls but they had higher test scores (Heckman, 2006).”

• cites Heckman, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Military service has provided disadvantaged black men increased education, higher earnings and greater occupational mobility than their civilian peers.

“The military is a more race-blind environment than the larger society and military service has provided disadvantaged black men increased education, higher earnings and greater occupational mobility than their civilian peers (Teachman, 2007).”

• cites Teachman, 2007Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Racially integrated schools enhance socioeconomic status because they are associated with higher high school graduation rates, greater diversity of disciplinary training in higher education, higher minority incomes and greater access to networks linked to educational and employment opportunities.

“Racially integrated schools enhance SES because they are associated with higher graduation rates from high school, greater diversity of disciplinary training in higher education, higher incomes for minorities and greater access to networks with links to educational and employment opportunities (Orfield, et al., 2008).”

• cites Orfield, et al., 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Interventions that successfully reduce youth violence include school-based programming and interventions that change the social context in which violence occurs.

“Interventions that successfully reduce youth violence include school-based programming (Hahn et al., 2007), as well as interventions that make changes to the social context in which violence occurs (Braga, Kennedy, Waring, & Piehl, 2001).”

• cites Hahn et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Braga, Kennedy, Waring, & Piehl, 2001Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

For African American college students, a brief psychological intervention framing social adversity on campus as initially common but temporary increased academic performance, reduced the black-white achievement gap by one half, reduced doctor visits and improved self-reported health over three years.

“For the African American college students the intervention increased their academic performance, reduced the black-white achievement gap by one half, reduced doctor visits and improved self-reported health over the three year observation period.”

• cites Walton & Cohen, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A year-long radio soap opera field experiment in Rwanda reduced intergroup prejudice and conflict, though the magnitude of change was modest.

“A year-long field experiment in Rwanda found that a radio soap opera employing humor, drama, popular proverbs, and traditional songs reduced intergroup prejudice and conflict, although the magnitude of change was modest (Paluck, 2009).”

• cites Paluck, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A randomized double-blind study of women found that a similar values affirmation intervention improved their grades and reduced the male-female gap in grades.

“A randomized double-blind study of women found that a similar values affirmation intervention improved their grades and reduced the male-female gap in grades (Miyake et al., 2010).”

• cites Miyake et al., 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Most diversity training programs lack a theoretical basis and fail to rigorously evaluate their impact.

“Most diversity training programs are not theoretically based and fail to rigorously evaluate their impact (Er-rafiy, Brauer, & Musca, 2010).”

• cites Er-rafiy, Brauer, & Musca, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Fictional TV can alter attitudes and policy preferences, and its influence is greater when the viewer develops emotional attachment with and empathy for the fictional character.

“Research reveals that fictional TV can alter attitudes and policy preferences and that the degree of influence is greater when the viewer develops emotional attachment with and empathy for the fictional character (Mutz & Nir, 2010).”

• cites Mutz & Nir, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Exposure to high levels of physical and psychosocial stressors in early life leads to deterioration in foundational cognitive functions necessary for learning and academic success and contributes importantly to socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement among children and adolescents.

“Other research reveals that exposure to high levels of physical and psychosocial stressors in early life leads to deterioration in foundational cognitive functions that are necessary for learning and academic success, and are an important contributor to SES gaps in academic achievement in children and adolescents (Evans, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 2011).”

• cites Evans, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This brief psychological intervention reduced the racial achievement gap and reduced the number of black students placed in remedial programs.

“This brief psychological intervention reduced the racial achievement gap and reduced the number of black students placed in remedial programs.”

• cites Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The impact of diversity initiatives has not been consistently tracked, and evidence is insufficient to indicate an effect of diversity on organizational performance.

“the impact of diversity initiatives has not been consistently tracked and currently there is insufficient evidence to indicate an effect of diversity on organizational performance (Curtis & Dreachslin, 2008).”

• cites Curtis & Dreachslin, 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A comprehensive cultural competence approach with organizational, structural, and clinical interventions has potential to improve health, address sociocultural barriers to care, and eliminate healthcare and health disparities.

“A comprehensive approach to cultural competence that includes organizational, structural and clinical cultural competence interventions has the potential to improve health, address sociocultural barriers to care and eliminate disparities in healthcare and in health (Betancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Ananeh-Firempong, 2003).”

• cites Betancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Ananeh-Firempong, 2003Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Priming students with Obama or Oprah had no effect on reducing implicit racial bias or motivation to control prejudice, and instead increased symbolic racism.

“priming students with either Barack Obama or Oprah Winfrey had no effect on reducing implicit racial bias or motivation to control prejudice. Instead, the primes led to increases in symbolic racism”

• cites Lybarger & Monteith, 2011Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Effective efforts to reduce racial discrimination and prejudice may also require initiatives to change the larger cultural values and images that undergird them.

“Effective efforts to reduce racial discrimination and prejudice may also require initiatives to change the larger cultural values and images that undergird them.”

May combine two claims.

In two randomized double-blind experiments with black and white seventh-graders, black students in the self-affirmation condition earned higher fall term grades in the targeted course and in their other courses.

“Black students in the affirmation condition earned higher fall term grades in the targeted course (the course in which the affirmation was completed) and in their other courses.”

• cites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Teachers' negative perceptions adversely affect black students' standardized test performance, and this effect is especially marked when black students have white teachers.

“Teachers’ negative perceptions also adversely affect the standardized test performance of black students, and this effect is especially marked when black students have white teachers (Oates, 2003).”

• cites Oates, 2003Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

One study found black academic performance improved and previously documented negative effects of racial stereotypes on black academic performance declined when Barack Obama's stereotype-defying success received major media coverage after his nomination and election.

“One study found black academic performance improved and the previously documented negative effects of racial stereotypes on black academic performance declined when Barak Obama’s stereotype-defying success received major media coverage just after his nomination at the Democratic Convention and his election as president (Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009).”

• cites Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A two-year follow-up found a positive effect of affirmation on students' GPA over two years for blacks but not whites, with low achieving black students showing the greatest benefit.

“A two-year follow-up of this study found that a positive effect of affirmation on students’ GPA over two years was evident for blacks but not whites, with low achieving black students showing the greatest benefit (Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009).”

• cites Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Perry Preschool intervention group also had better overall health and engaged in fewer risky behaviors, although there were no differences in medical conditions.

“They also had better overall health and engaged in fewer risky behaviors (driving without seat belt, smoking, illicit use of sedatives, marijuana, LSD, cocaine, heroin) although there were no differences in medical conditions (Muennig, et al., 2009).”

• cites Muennig, et al., 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

These cultural agents can also affect our emotions and the degree of positive emotions that social groups feel toward others.

“These cultural agents can also affect our emotions and the degree of positive emotions that social groups feel toward others.”

May combine two claims.

Mass media exposure can prime prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination and can also increase or decrease prejudice.

“mass media exposure can not only prime prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination but also lead to increases or decreases in prejudice (Mutz & Goldman, 2010).”

• cites Mutz & Goldman, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Media exposure to Obama reduced prejudice among viewers of political television, with the strongest effects among conservatives.

“media exposure to Obama reduced prejudice among viewers of political television with the effects being strongest among conservatives (Goldman, 2012).”

• cites Goldman, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Positive media portrayals have been associated with reductions in prejudice, with time spent watching likeable gay characters on TV, Will and Grace, associated with lower levels of prejudice toward gays in correlational survey data.

“Positive media portrayals have also been associated with reductions in prejudice with, for example, time spent watching likeable gay characters on TV, Will and Grace, associated with lower levels of prejudice toward gays in correlational survey data (Mutz & Goldman, 2010).”

• cites Mutz & Goldman, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Societal-wide reductions in prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination will require large-scale adoption and implementation to alter deeply embedded cultural beliefs about race.

“Societal-wide reductions in prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination will require large-scale adoption and implementation to alter deeply embedded cultural beliefs about race.”

May combine two claims.

Improved term grades were evident for 70% of African American students, but the effect was weakest among the previously highest performing black students.

“Improved term grades were evident for 70% of African American students but the effect was weakest among the previously highest performing black students.”

• cites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The Abecedarian project found fewer symptoms of depression, lower marijuana use, a more active lifestyle, and significant educational and vocational benefits compared to controls at age 21.

“Another early childhood intervention program using a randomized controlled design, the Abecedarian project, found fewer symptoms of depression, lower marijuana use, a more active lifestyle, and significant educational and vocational benefits in compared to the controls at age 21 (Campbell et al., 2008; McLaughlin, Campbell, Pungello, & Skinner, 2007).”

• cites Campbell et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites McLaughlin, Campbell, Pungello, & Skinner, 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

One or two administrations of the self-affirmation intervention worked equally well, and the intervention produced about a 40% reduction in the racial achievement gap.

“One or two administrations of the intervention worked equally well and the intervention resulted in about a 40% reduction in the racial achievement gap.”

• cites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Access to primary care is associated with smaller social disparities in health and is a likely determinant of unexpectedly good health profiles of Cuba and Costa Rica.

“Access to primary care is associated with smaller social disparities in health and is a likely determinant of the unexpectedly good health profiles of Cuba and Costa Rica (Starfield, Shi, & Macinko, 2005).”

• cites Starfield, Shi, & Macinko, 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Receipt of Medicaid safety net services in Oregon was associated one year later with higher use of health care services, lower out-of-pocket expenses, lower medical debt and financial stress, and better self-reported physical and mental health than control.

“the receipt of medical safety net services from the Medicaid program in the state of Oregon was associated, one year later, with higher use of health care services (including primary and preventive care), lower out-of-pocket medical expenses, lower medical debt and financial stress, and better self-reported physical and mental health than the control group (Finkelstein et al., 2011; Sommers, Baick”

• cites Finkelstein et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Sommers, Baicker, & Epstein, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Cultural competence training improves health professionals' knowledge, attitudes, and skills and improves patient satisfaction.

“cultural competence training improves the knowledge, attitudes and skills of health professionals and improves patient satisfaction (Beach et al., 2005).”

• cites Beach et al., 2005Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Research on mitigating negative effects of racism has focused on interpersonal discrimination as a stressor and examined how individual coping strategies and resources reduce negative effects of discriminatory stress on health.

“Research on mitigating the negative effects of racism has tended to focus on interpersonal discrimination as a stressor and has examined how individual coping strategies and resources can reduce the negative effects of discriminatory stress on health.”

• cites Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Williams & Mohammed, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The murder-rate decline was evident across the U.S. but larger in metropolitan than non-metropolitan areas.

“The decline was evident across the U.S., but was larger in metropolitan areas than non-metropolitan areas.”

• cites Roth, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Person-focused primary care is likely better than disease-focused care in meeting health care needs of racially stigmatized patients and reducing disparities.

“Person-focused primary care is also likely better than disease-focused care in meeting the health care needs of racially stigmatized patients and reducing disparities in health (Starfield, Gérvas, & Mangin, 2012).”

• cites Starfield, Gérvas, & Mangin, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Roth suggested the mechanism was an increase in trust in government and public officials.

“Roth (2010) suggests that the mechanism was due to an increase in trust in government and public officials.”

• cites Roth, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In an experiment, when faced with actual racism, most individuals did not feel outrage and did not confront the perpetrator.

“when faced with an actual instance of racism, most individuals do not feel outrage and do not confront the perpetrator of racist behavior (Kawakami, Dunn, Karmali, & Dovidio, 2009).”

• cites Kawakami, Dunn, Karmali, & Dovidio, 2009Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In 1994, the year of Mandela's election, black South Africans reported the highest happiness and life satisfaction since 1983 and the black-white gap in psychological well-being was eliminated for the first time.

“in 1994, the year of Nelson Mandela’s election, black South Africans reported the highest levels of happiness and life satisfaction since 1983 and for the first time, there was the elimination of the black-white gap in psychological well-being (Moller, 1998).”

• cites Moller, 1998Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In a national cohort of U.S. black adults followed from 1979 to 1992, self-reported physical health, disability, psychological distress, reports of racial discrimination, and perceptions that whites wanted to keep blacks down were lower at the 1988 wave than prior waves and lower than the 1992 wave.

“self-reported physical health, disability and psychological distress as well as, reports of racial discrimination and perceptions that whites wanted to keep blacks down were lower at the third wave of data collection in 1988 than they had been in prior waves, and lower than they were at wave four in 1992 (Jackson et al., 1996).”

• cites Jackson et al., 1996Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The 1988 Jesse Jackson presidential campaign was the most successful by a black person in U.S. history, and the study suggested this positive race-related political event led to better health reports.

“In 1988, Jesse Jackson was running the most successful presidential campaign ever by a black person in U.S. history and this study suggested that this positive, race-related, political event had led to better reports of health.”

• cites Jackson et al., 1996Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The contact hypothesis conditions are equal status, commitment to a common goal, cooperation among both groups, and support from authority figures.

“These conditions are: 1) the different groups must be equal in status; 2) they must have a commitment to a common goal or goals; 3) there must be cooperation among members of both groups to promote their shared goals; and 4) there must be support and encouragement from persons in positions of authority.”

• cites Allport, [1954] 1979Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Social ties, racial identity, self-esteem, religious involvement, and occupancy of social contexts with greater density of one's racial group can buffer negative effects of discrimination on health.

“social ties, racial identity, self-esteem, religious involvement and occupancy of social contexts with greater density of one’s racial group can buffer the negative effects of discrimination on health (Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009).”

• cites Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Williams & Mohammed, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In the last 50 years, black homicide rates were highest between 1971 and 1974 when black trust in government was at a historic low, and white homicide rate was highest in 1980 when white trust in government was historically low.

“in the last 50 years, black homicide rates were at their highest between 1971 and 1974, when black trust in government was at a historic low point, and the white homicide rate was highest in 1980, when white trust in government was historically low in the final year of Jimmy Carter’s presidency.”

• cites Roth, 2010Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Implicit biases can be viewed as deeply engrained habits that can be replaced by learning multiple new prejudice-reducing strategies including stereotype replacement, counter-stereotype imaging, individuation, perspective taking, and increasing interracial contact opportunities.

“These researchers viewed implicit biases as deeply engrained habits that can be replaced by learning multiple new prejudice-reducing strategies including stereotype replacement, counter-stereotype imaging, individuation, perspective taking and increasing opportunities for interracial contact.”

• cites Devine, Forscher, Austin, & Cox, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A 2006 national survey found 12% of blacks and 13% of whites believed they had racial biases, while 43% of blacks and 48% of whites personally knew someone they believed racist.

“A 2006 national survey found that although few adults (12 % of blacks and 13 % of whites) believed that they had racial biases, some 43 % of blacks and 48 % of whites stated that they personally knew someone who they believe is racist (CNN, 2006).”

• cites CNN, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

According to the contact hypothesis, simple casual interracial contact is insufficient to reduce prejudice, but intergroup contact can reduce prejudice if certain conditions are met.

“simple, casual interracial contact is not sufficient to reduce prejudice but if certain conditions are met, intergroup contact can be effective in prejudice reduction.”

• cites Allport, [1954] 1979Not checked yet

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The study found a strong inverse relationship between each indicator of continuity and empowerment and youth suicide and a strong dose-response relationship between number of markers and prevalence of suicide.

“The study found a strong inverse relationship between each indicator of continuity and empowerment and youth suicide and a strong dose-response relationship between the number of markers and the prevalence of suicide.”

• cites Chandler & Lalonde, 1998Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Many interventions considered target policies and structures that drive fundamental causes of health while others address proximal mechanisms linking social structure to health.

“Many of the interventions considered target policies and structures that drive some of the fundamental causes of health while others address the proximal mechanisms linking social structure to health.”

May combine two claims.

A randomized field experiment with black women who used crack found an intervention emphasizing personal independence, power, and control over health-related behaviors, economic resources, and relationships reduced crack use and high-risk behavior and improved housing and employment status.

“A randomized field experiment with black women who used crack found that an intervention that emphasized personal independence, power and control over health-related behaviors, economic resources and relationships was effective in reducing crack use and high-risk, and also in improving housing and employment status (Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004).”

• cites Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A study of white adolescents found perceived discrimination based on social class accounted for 13 percent of the association between poverty and allostatic load, suggesting other forms of discrimination may be an important but neglected contributor to social inequities in health.

“a recent study of white adolescents found that perceived discrimination based on social class accounted for 13 percent of the association between poverty and allostatic load, suggesting that other forms of discrimination may be an important but neglected contributor to social inequities in health (Fuller-Rowell, Evans, & Ong, 2012).”

• cites Fuller-Rowell, Evans, & Ong, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Groups with strong economic stakes frequently profit from current arrangements and probably oppose change.

“The level of political support for reducing racism is important given that powerful economic interests often benefit from the status quo and are likely to fight change (Katz, 2009).”

• cites Katz, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An effective approach will likely require interventions that address racism at multiple levels.

“An effective approach will likely require interventions that address racism at multiple levels.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

A government entity responsible for improving health and reducing disparities, with political authority and economic resources to convene government, research, and advocacy groups, could have a very large impact by maximizing opportunities to leverage federal funds.

“A governmental entity that had responsibility for improving health and reducing disparities, and the political authority and economic resources to convene various government units as well as research and advocacy groups could have an enormous impact by maximizing opportunities to leverage federal funds (Katz, 2009).”

• cites Katz, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In 1984, federal funding was used to prompt states to enact a minimum drinking age of 21.

“This would include using contingent funding opportunities such as when a 1984 federal law used funding to encourage states to pass laws raising the drinking age to 21 (Blankenship, Friedman, Dworkin, & Mantell, 2006).”

• cites Blankenship, Friedman, Dworkin, & Mantell, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Prevention programs that enhance protective resources reduce psychiatric symptoms, new cases of depression, and negative effects of risk factors.

“prevention programs that enhance these protective resources reduce psychiatric symptoms, the number of new cases of depression and the negative effects of risk factors (Muñoz, Cuijpers, Smit, Barrera, & Leykin, 2010)”

• cites Muñoz, Cuijpers, Smit, Barrera, & Leykin, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In that trial, there were decreases in homelessness and being employed full time compared to women in a standard HIV prevention intervention group.

“There were decreases in homelessness and being employed full time compared to women in a standard HIV prevention intervention group.”

• cites Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

A study of British civil servants followed 15 years documented that elimination of four risk factors reduced CHD mortality by 73% and SES gaps in mortality by 86%, with smoking cessation making largest contribution.

“A study of British civil servants followed for 15 years documented that the elimination of four risk factors (high blood pressure, cholesterol, glucose and cigarette smoking) reduced CHD mortality by 73% and SES gaps in mortality by 86%, with smoking cessation making the largest contribution to these reductions (Kivimäki et al., 2008).”

• cites Kivimäki et al., 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Research from Iran indicates social factors still matter for health in the context of primary care and highlights need to incorporate addressing social factors in care delivery.

“research from Iran indicates that social factors still matter for health in the context of primary care and highlight the need to incorporate addressing social factors in the delivery of care (Jafari, Eftekhar, Pourreza, & Mousavi, 2010).”

• cites Jafari, Eftekhar, Pourreza, & Mousavi, 2010Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

For homeless and unstably housed persons living with HIV, an RCT providing stable housing reduced risk behavior, increased access to care, and increased medication adherence.

“For homeless and unstably housed persons living with HIV, an intervention (RCT) that provided stable housing was effective in reducing risk behavior, increasing access to care, and increasing adherence to medication regimen (Wolitski et al., 2010).”

• cites Wolitski et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

At present, many non-medical interventions yield savings and economic gains that are not directly captured by the insurers who pay for care or by the agency or social program that provided it, so the savings are not realized or put back into the programs that require them to serve additional clients.

“Currently, the economic benefits and cost savings from many non-medical interventions are not directly experienced by insurers who pay for healthcare services or the social program or agency that delivered the service resulting in the savings neither being realized nor reinvested in the programs that need them to serve more clients (Katz, 2009).”

• cites Katz, 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Japan's experience demonstrates that it is possible to achieve large-scale gains in health and to reduce income inequality, socioeconomic status gaps, and regional health inequalities.

“The experience of Japan shows that dramatic improvement in health and reductions in income inequality and SES and regional inequalities in health, on a large scale, is possible.”

• cites Ikeda et al., 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Japan's life expectancy in 1960 was below that of many nations, including the United States, yet it is now the longest at birth worldwide.

“In 1960, Japan had lower life expectancy than many countries in the world including the United States but currently has the world’s longest life expectancy at birth (Ikeda et al., 2011).”

• cites Ikeda et al., 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Journalists tend to prefer a non-optimal frame, but they respond when given information about an alternative frame.

“Journalists have a preference for a non-optimal frame but they are responsive when provided with information about an alternative frame (Hinnant, Oh, Caburnay, & Kreuter, 2011).”

• cites Hinnant, Oh, Caburnay, & Kreuter, 2011Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Policies such as tobacco and alcohol taxes, smoking bans, restricting minors' tobacco access, reducing smoking-cessation co-payments, and point-of-service signs encouraging physical activity are effective in changing behaviors.

“taxes on alcohol and tobacco products, banning smoking in public places, restricting the access of minors to tobacco, reducing the co-payments of patients for smoking cessation products, and point of service signs that encourage physical activity are effective in changing behaviors (Bloom & Cohen, 2007; Katz, 2009).”

• cites Bloom & Cohen, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Katz, 2009Not checked yet

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