Prospective examination of the therapeutic role of psychological flexibility and cognitive reappraisal in the ceremonial use of ayahuasca

May combine two claims.

Two prospective studies used naturalistic volunteer samples with high attrition (>50%), which may have introduced self-selection and sample biases limiting generalizability.

“Second, although two of these studies employed prospective designs, their use of naturalistic, volunteer samples with high rates of attrition (> 50%) may have contributed self-selection and sample biases that limit generalizability (Close et al., 2020; Zeifman et al., 2020).”

• cites Close et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zeifman et al., 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Methods (Study 1 and Study 2, Procedures and Participants; page unavailable) describe prospective studies with volunteer recruitment, and the Discussion (Limitations and Future Research; page unavailable) identifies possible completer/attrition bias. But the reported follow-up nonresponse was 97 of 279 enrollees in Study 1 and 206 of 478 in Study 2—neither exceeds 50%. The claim’s >50% attrition figure is therefore not supported as stated by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Cognitive reappraisal is considered more effective than suppression or avoidance and has been proposed as a mechanism of CBT and mindfulness-based therapies.

“Cognitive reappraisal is considered more effective than inhibitory strategies that involve suppression or avoidance (Aldao et al., 2010; Webb et al., 2012) and has been proposed as an underlying mechanism of cognitive-behavioral (CBT) and mindfulness-based therapies (Buhle et al., 2014; Sheppes et al., 2014; Teasdale et al., 2002).”

• cites Aldao et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Webb et al., 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Buhle et al., 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page not provided) says that core elements of reappraisal are central to cognitive behavioral therapy, supporting the CBT portion of the clause attributed to Buhle et al. The paper does not identify mindfulness-based therapies or propose reappraisal as their underlying mechanism. The comparison with suppression or avoidance is cited to other sources in the sentence, not to Buhle et al. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Across three prospective samples, psychological flexibility increased and covaried over time with clinical outcomes such as depression and suicidality.

“In particular, across three prospective samples, psychological flexibility showed signs of increasing and covarying over time with clinical outcomes including depression and suicidality (Close et al., 2020; Zeifman et al., 2020).”

• cites Close et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zeifman et al., 2020 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Several studies have found positive associations between ayahuasca use and emotional acceptance processes, supporting acute processing of previously avoided emotions and healthy emotion regulation strategies.

“In addition, several studies have found positive associations between ayahuasca use and emotional acceptance processes, which appears to support the acute processing of previously avoided emotions and use of healthy emotion regulation strategies (Domínguez-Clavé et al., 2019; Franquesa et al., 2018; Sampedro et al., 2017; Soler et al., 2016, 2018).”

• cites Domínguez-Clavé et al., 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Franquesa et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion (page numbers unavailable in our copy) report higher decentering scores among ayahuasca users; the paper defines decentering as observing thoughts and feelings in a detached manner. This supports an association with a process related to emotional acceptance, but the study does not establish acute processing of previously avoided emotions or the use of healthy emotion-regulation strategies. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Sampedro et al., 2017 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports increased decentering and reduced judgmental and reactive attitudes after ayahuasca, supporting an association with acceptance-related capacities. The study concerns the post-acute period in healthy volunteers; it does not show acute processing of previously avoided emotions or directly establish the use of healthy emotion-regulation strategies. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

These therapies are proposed to work by stimulating psychological flexibility, reducing emotional avoidance, and increasing approach-oriented coping.

“It has been proposed that they exert their effects through the stimulation of psychological flexibility processes that decrease emotional avoidance and increase approach-oriented emotional coping (Davis et al., 2020; Kashdan et al., 2020; Zeifman et al., 2020)”

• cites Davis et al., 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction proposes that psychedelic experiences may increase psychological flexibility and thereby help explain therapeutic effects. The Discussion links psychedelics to acceptance and committed behavior change, but our copy does not specifically say that the proposed pathway decreases emotional avoidance or increases approach-oriented emotional coping. No page numbers are available in the indexed passages. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Kashdan et al., 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zeifman et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Davis et al. (2021) found relations between an insight measure and adaptive changes in psychological flexibility, well-being, and life satisfaction after psychedelic use.

“One example is the work of Davis et al. (2021) who, using a preliminary cross-sectional design, found relations between an original measure of insight (that appears theoretically comparable to cognitive reappraisal) and adaptive changes in psychological flexibility, well-being, and life satisfaction following use of a psychedelic.”

• cites Davis et al., 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Two relevant studies used cross-sectional designs, which prevent analysis of process-level psychedelic changes and may be affected by retrospective bias.

“First, two of the relevant studies used cross-sectional designs that inherently preclude analysis of process-level psychedelic changes and may be impacted by retrospective bias (Davis et al., 2020; Thiessen et al., 2018).”

• cites Davis et al., 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Method (Procedure; page unavailable) identifies this as a cross-sectional survey, and the Discussion (page unavailable) says retrospective reports may be biased by current affect and personality. The claim that this design precludes analysis of process-level changes is too absolute: the Method (Data Analyses; page unavailable) describes analyses of reported changes in psychological flexibility and a mediation model, though the study did not observe changes as they occurred. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Thiessen et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Because psychological flexibility and negative affect are highly correlated in prior studies, a competing model tested whether change in negative affect also had indirect effects between acute experiential factors and change in positive mood.

“Due to the high correlation between psychological flexibility (indexed with the AAQ) and negative affect in previous studies (Rochefort et al., 2018; Tyndall et al., 2018; Wolgast, 2014), a competing model was also tested to determine whether change in negative affect also exerted significant indirect effects in the relation between acute experiential factors and change in positive mood.”

• cites Rochefort et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tyndall et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Wolgast, 2014 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Ayahuasca produces emotional dream-like experiences with cognitive-affective changes and spiritual insights that have been linked to substantial and enduring antidepressant effects.

“Ayahuasca stimulates emotional dream-like experiences involving potent cognitive-affective changes and spiritual insights (Dobkin de Rios, 1971) that have been associated with substantial and enduring antidepressant effects (Palhano-Fontes et al., 2019; Weiss et al., 2021).”

• cites Dobkin de Rios, 1971 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Palhano-Fontes et al., 2019 sourcePartly supported

  The Results report a large antidepressant effect versus placebo at day 7 and an association between improvement and one aspect of the acute experience, ‘transcendence of time and space.’ The study assessed outcomes only through day 7, so it does not establish antidepressant effects enduring beyond one week; the other measured mystical-experience factors were not significantly associated with improvement. The dream-like description is attached to a different citation. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Weiss et al., 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (‘Does ceremonial use of ayahuasca prompt change in personality?’; page unavailable) reports a substantial decline in neuroticism that persisted three months after ceremony and says the result is consistent with previous findings on major depression. The Results (‘Examining moderation of personality change’; page unavailable) associate mystical experiences with larger declines in neuroticism, not with measured antidepressant effects. Weiss et al. therefore support a lasting, related personality change, but not the claimed link between those experiences and substantial, enduring antidepressant effects. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A cross-sectional study found that increases in psychological flexibility statistically mediated the link between acute insight, mystical experience, and decreases in depression and anxiety.

“In a recent cross-sectional study, increases in psychological flexibility were found to statistically mediate the relation between acute insight, mystical experience, and decreases in depression and anxiety (Davis et al., 2020).”

• cites Davis et al., 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous cross-sectional work suggests links between experiences of insight during a psychedelic and enhanced well-being and life satisfaction post-session.

“These results build upon previous cross-sectional work suggesting links between experiences of insight during a psychedelic and enhanced well-being and life satisfaction post-session (Davis et al., 2021).”

• cites Davis et al., 2021 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Findings from recent research on group-based psychedelic experiences suggest that feelings of group belonging and connectedness predict psychological well-being and positive mood.

“Findings from recent research on group-based psychedelic experiences suggest that feelings of group belonging and connectedness predict psychological well-being and positive mood (Forstmann et al., 2020; Kettner et al., 2021).”

• cites Forstmann et al., 2020 sourceSupported
• cites Kettner et al., 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Decentering has been found to be dispositionally higher in ayahuasca users and shows evidence of being elevated 24 h post-ayahuasca.

“Decentering has been found to be dispositionally higher in ayahuasca users (Franquesa et al., 2018) and shows evidence of being elevated 24 h post-ayahuasca (Murphy-Beiner and Soar, 2020; Soler et al., 2016).”

• cites Franquesa et al., 2018 sourceSupported
• cites Murphy-Beiner and Soar, 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Soler et al., 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carhart-Harris and Friston's (2019) relaxed beliefs under psychedelics model proposes that psychedelics precipitate a freer and less constrained state of consciousness.

“This notion is supported by Carhart-Harris and Friston’s (2019) relaxed beliefs under psychedelics model, which proposes that psychedelics precipitate a freer and less constrained states of consciousness.”

• cites Carhart-Harris and Friston, 2019 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Both the AAQ and AAQ-II may not discriminate from established measures of psychological distress.

“However, several researchers have pointed out that both the AAQ and AAQ-II may not discriminate from established measures of psychological distress (Rochefort et al., 2018; Tyndall et al., 2018; Wolgast, 2014).”

• cites Rochefort et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tyndall et al., 2018 sourcePartly supported

  The Limitations and Future research section (page unavailable) reports concerns about the AAQ-II’s validity as a measure of psychological flexibility and experiential avoidance. It does not discuss the original AAQ or say that either questionnaire fails to discriminate from established measures of psychological distress. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Wolgast, 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (pp. 7–8) questions the AAQ-II’s discriminant validity and raises the possibility that associations involving the AAQ or AAQ-II and measures of psychological well-being reflect measurement overlap. The paper also notes criticism of the original AAQ’s discrimination from negative affectivity or neuroticism (p. 2). But its direct distress-item comparison used a scale constructed for this study, while it reports that the AAQ-II and the established BDI-II fit better as separate factors (p. 3); it therefore does not establish the stated concern for both questionnaires against established distress measures specifically. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ayahuasca retreats tend to remain financially inaccessible to those who cannot afford the costs of the retreats and associated travel.

“Ayahuasca retreats, which can cost up to several thousands of dollars, tend to remain financially inaccessible to those who cannot afford the costs of the retreats and associated travel (Adams et al., 2015).”

• cites Adams et al., 2015 sourceCould not verify

  The closest passages discuss psychologists traveling to communities (Accompaniment in Healing, p. 14) and economic inequality (Denaturalizing Conventional (Scientific) Wisdom, p. 8). Searches for ayahuasca, retreat costs, and travel expenses found no passage addressing the financial accessibility of ayahuasca retreats. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The revised version of the AAQ-II improves upon the AAQ in psychometric consistency and has been widely used.

“The revised version of the AAQ-II (Bond et al., 2011) improves upon the AAQ in its psychometric consistency and has been widely used in the literature.”

• cites Bond et al., 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The General Discussion says the AAQ-II has stronger, more stable psychometric properties than the AAQ-I. But the section ‘The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ)’ describes the original AAQ as widely used; our copy does not establish that the newly developed AAQ-II had been widely used in the literature. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

For thousands of years, the shaman has been working effectively in ways that do not map directly onto modern Western psychology.

“Indeed, for thousands of years, the shaman has been working effectively in ways that do not map directly onto modern Western psychology (Adams et al., 2015).”

• cites Adams et al., 2015 sourcePartly supported

  In “Indigenizing Health: Social-Emotional Well-Being” (pp. 11–12), the paper describes Indigenous knowledge as time-tested, potentially effective, and sometimes poorly matched by mainstream psychological approaches. It does not mention shamans, establish a history of thousands of years, or state that their work has been effective. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The AAQ was updated in large part due to concerns over its psychometric limitations, including suboptimal construct validity.

“The AAQ was updated in large part due to concerns over its psychometric limitations, including suboptimal construct validity (Cherry et al., 2021).”

• cites Cherry et al., 2021 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.4 (p. 10) identifies construct-validity concerns about the AAQ-II, and Section 1.2 (p. 2) says the AAQ-II followed the original AAQ. But the cited review does not say that psychometric limitations of the original AAQ were a major reason for updating it; its validity critique concerns the AAQ-II itself. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

AEI discomfort was significantly correlated only with AEI Reappraisal (r = 0.35, p < 0.001), MEQ-30 transcendence of time/space (r = 0.27, p < 0.001), and MEQ-30 ineffability (r = 0.25, p = 0.001).

“except for the AEI discomfort factor, which demonstrated significant associations only with AEI Reappraisal (r = 0.35, p < 0.001), MEQ-30 transcendence of time/space (r = 0.27, p < 0.001), and MEQ-30 ineffability (r = 0.25, p = 0.001).”

May combine two claims.

No significant moderation effects were detected for demographic variables or retreat characteristics.

“No significant moderation effects were detected for demographic variables or retreat characteristics (see Table 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The final sample was 91% non-Hispanic White.

“91% non-Hispanic White, 2% Black, 6% Asian American/Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 9% Latinx, and 3% American Indian/Native American”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Expectancy, demand characteristics, and invalid responding were controlled using several validity scales.

“Expectancy, demand characteristics, and invalid responding were controlled for with several validity scales.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The MEQ-30 had Cronbach's alphas from 0.87 for Ineffability to 0.96 for Mystical.

“Cronbach’s alphas ranged from 0.87 (Ineffability) to 0.96 (Mystical).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Independent samples t-tests checked for sample bias between valid responders who missed one timepoint and those with no missing data on primary outcomes; all assumptions were met.

“Prior to conducting the primary analyses, independent samples t-tests were conducted to test for the presence of sample bias driven by differences in personality characteristics between validly responding participants who missed one of the two timepoints (n = 36), and validly responding participants with no missing data (n = 261) on primary outcome measures. All assumptions were met.”

May combine two claims.

These findings give preliminary support that psychological flexibility processes may be involved in psychedelic-induced changes and suggest it as a transdiagnostic therapeutic target.

“These findings provide meaningful preliminary support for the notion that psychological flexibility processes may be involved in psychedelic-induced changes and suggest the potential for this component as a transdiagnostic therapeutic target.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The EDI had good internal consistency (α = 0.89).

“Internal consistency was good (α = 0.89).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In this study, PANAS Cronbach's alphas were 0.90 and 0.91 for positive affect and 0.88 and 0.85 for negative affect at baseline and 3-month follow-up.

“Cronbach’s alphas in our study at baseline and 3-month follow-up, respectively, were 0.90 and 0.91 for PANAS-P and 0.88 and 0.85 for PANAS-N.”

• cites Watson et al., 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The research team did not participate in retreat recruitment or ayahuasca administration.

“The research team was not involved in the retreat recruitment or in the ayahuasca administrations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Habitual use of cognitive reappraisal is associated with fewer depression symptoms, more positive emotions, and greater psychological well-being.

“The habitual use of cognitive reappraisal has been associated with reduced symptoms of depression, increased positive emotions, and psychological well-being (Gross and John, 2003).”

• cites Gross and John, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Participants endorsing more than three Infrequency items and more than two Unlikely Virtue items were removed from analyses.

“Participants who endorsed more than three Infrequency scale items and more than two Unlikely Virtue scale items were removed from analyses.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

To control for validity variables, the study examined self-reported change in primary variables among participants with no expectation of favorable change and among those with low baseline trait suggestibility.

“To examine whether change in outcomes was present while controlling for validity variables, the study examined self-reported change in primary variables among participants who endorsed no expectation of favorable change and, in a separate group, among those who exhibited low trait suggestibility at baseline.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A significance threshold of p < 0.01 was set for all analyses to reduce Type I error.

“To reduce Type I error, across analyses, a statistical significance threshold was set at p < 0.01 for all analyses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data for acute experience measures were excluded for 11 participants based on a cut-off of strong or extreme endorsement of all three overreporting items.

“Based on this cut-off, data for measures indexing acute experience were excluded for 11 participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Criterion validity of AEI subscales was assessed via correlations with change scores in psychological flexibility and trait affect.

“Criterion validity (or predictive validity) was assessed by examining correlations between AEI subscales and change scores in study outcomes (i.e. psychological flexibility, trait affect).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another study found that emotion regulation ability cross-sectionally mediated the link between psychedelic use and lower intimate partner violence.

“Another study found that emotion regulation ability cross-sectionally mediated the relation between psychedelic use and lower intimate partner violence (Thiessen et al., 2018).”

• cites Thiessen et al., 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The icaro may encourage group members' productive engagement with challenging emotional content.

“Third, the icaro, in which the shaman directs a prayer to an individual group member, may encourage group members’ productive engagement with challenging emotional content.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Psychedelics may decrease threat sensitivity and attenuate reactivity in brain regions associated with emotional processing during the acute phase.

“Some data suggest that psychedelics may decrease threat sensitivity and attenuate reactivity in brain regions associated with emotional processing during the acute phase of a psychedelic session (Kraehenmann et al., 2015, 2016).”

• cites Kraehenmann et al., 2015, 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data from seven participants were removed pairwise because of inadequate time commitment and untimely completion.

“Data were furthermore removed in pairwise manner for seven participants because of inadequate time commitment and untimely completion (i.e. the total survey time duration fell below one standard deviation or there was substantial deviation from their survey timepoints).”

May combine two claims.

Acute psychological clarity, introspective awareness, and reappraisal during ayahuasca may upregulate dispositional psychological flexibility, which may in turn drive positive mood.

“processes of acute psychological clarity, introspective awareness, and reappraisal of difficult life experiences during ayahuasca may upregulate a dispositional capacity for psychological flexibility, and increased psychological flexibility may, in turn, functionally drive positive mood.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

There is increasing recognition of the importance of interpersonal and relational processes in models of mental health and psychosocial functioning.

“Also relevant to this discussion is the increasing recognition of the importance of interpersonal and relational processes in models of mental health and psychosocial functioning (Maercker and Horn, 2012).”

• cites Maercker and Horn, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The AEI Reappraisal scale may measure appraisal differently from how it is defined in CBT, ACT, and broader literature.

“it is important to acknowledge potential differences between how appraisal is measured in this study and how it is defined in CBT, ACT, and the broader literature.”

May combine two claims.

Ayahuasca and other classic psychedelics may lead to broadened metacognitive awareness accompanying psychological flexibility and reappraisal that contribute to organizing and resolving psychologically difficult content.

“Ayahuasca and other classic psychedelics may lead to broadened metacognitive awareness accompanying psychological flexibility and reappraisal that contribute to organizing and resolving psychologically difficult content through acute engagement with intense emotions and memories”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Garland and Fredrickson's (2019) mindfulness-to-meaning theory posits that metacognitive effects of mindfulness are integral to psychedelic experience and function to disrupt default habits of self-referential processing, stimulate attentional broadening, and elicit positive emotions.

“Another potentially convergent model, Garland and Fredrickson’s (2019) mindfulness-to-meaning theory, posits that the metacognitive effects of mindfulness are integral to psychedelic experience and function to disrupt default habits of self-referential processing, stimulate attentional broadening, and elicit positive emotions.”

• cites Garland and Fredrickson, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All data met assumptions of normality according to guidelines by Hair et al. (2010) and Byrne (2010).

“All data met assumptions of normality according to guidelines indicated by Hair et al. (2010) and Byrne (2010).”

• cites Hair et al., 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Byrne, 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The ayahuasca ceremony presents individuals with states of psychological difficulty, and the group format displays this process to other group members.

“Second, the ayahuasca ceremony appears to present individuals with states of psychological difficulty (both psychological and physical), and the group format baldly displays this process to other group members.”

May combine two claims.

Of 330 recruited participants, 10 (3%) met criteria for invalid responding on the Elemental Psychopathy Assessment validity scales, leaving 320 validly responding participants with data from at least one timepoint.

“Of the 330 participants who were recruited, 3% (n = 10) met criteria for invalid responding based on the Elemental Psychopathy Assessment (Lynam et al., 2011) validity scales, leaving a sample of 320 validly responding participants possessing data from at least one timepoint.”

• cites Lynam et al., 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The therapeutic effects of psychedelic experiences reflect synergies between pharmacological actions, mind-set, setting, and ontological frameworks.

“It is widely accepted that the therapeutic effects of psychedelic experiences reflect synergies between pharmacological actions, mind-set, setting, and ontological frameworks (i.e. philosophies about the nature of being and existence; Hartogsohn, 2016).”

• cites Hartogsohn, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The final sample consisted of 261 participants after 69 were removed for not providing 3-month follow-up data, an 18% attrition rate.

“The final sample consisted of 261 participants after 69 were removed because of not providing 3-month follow-up data (18% attrition rate; 166 self-identified males and 94 self-identified females; mean age = 34.8 (SD = 10.0); 91% non-Hispanic White, 2% Black, 6% Asian American/Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 9% Latinx, and 3% American Indian/Native American).”

May combine two claims.

The detachment component of decentering may support psychological flexibility by reducing reactivity to negative thoughts/beliefs and assist cognitive reappraisal.

“The detachment component of decentering may support psychological flexibility by reducing reactivity to the putative claims of one’s negative thoughts/beliefs and assist cognitive reappraisal”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Psychedelics may enhance the capacity for flexibility in adopting new perspectives, reappraisals, and conclusions.

“Psychedelics may furthermore enhance the capacity for flexibility in adopting new perspectives, reappraisals, and conclusions based on this contextual information.”

May combine two claims.

Classic psychedelics increase the malleability of self-related processing and reduce, in a potentially enduring way, the negative psychological impact of ruminative cognitive-affective repertoires.

“Our results provide further support for the assertion that classic psychedelics increase the malleability of self-related processing and reduce, in a potentially enduring way, the negative psychological impact of ruminative cognitive-affective repertoires.”

May combine two claims.

Change in psychological flexibility did not statistically mediate relations between acute factors and negative affect, which would be expected if the constructs merely overlap.

“It is notable, nevertheless, that change in psychological flexibility did not statistically mediate relations between acute factors and negative affect, which would be expected if the constructs merely overlap.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The study employed methodological safeguards to decrease placebo, expectancy, and demand threats.

“The study employed a series of methodological safeguards, however, to decrease placebo, expectancy, and demand threats.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The concentrations of key active compounds in ayahuasca are difficult to quantify due to heterogeneity of preparation methods.

“The concentrations of key active compounds found in ayahuasca (i.e. DMT, tetrahydroharmine, harmine, and harmaline) are notoriously difficult to quantify given the substantial heterogeneity of ayahuasca preparation methods, which renders rigorous standardization of future medicinal use of ayahuasca a key challenge (Kaasik et al., 2021).”

• cites Kaasik et al., 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Measures of affect were not global assessments but assessments of self-reported affect over the preceding week.

“Next, it bears noting that our measures of affect were not global assessments; rather they were assessments of self-reported affect over the preceding week.”

May combine two claims.

The results suggest that ayahuasca ceremonial experience produces therapeutic outcomes, in part, through promoting cognitive reappraisal, mystical experience, positive mood, and psychological clarity acutely, and psychological flexibility dispositionally.

“The results are suggestive that ayahuasca ceremonial experience produces therapeutic outcomes, in part, through promoting cognitive reappraisal, mystical experience, positive mood, and psychological clarity acutely, and psychological flexibility dispositionally.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to an administrative error, two items were accidentally excised from the final version of the AAQ administered to participants.

“In addition, due to an administrative error, two items were accidentally excised from the final version of the AAQ administered to participants.”

May combine two claims.

Medical and psychiatric screening procedures were not standardized across sites, which limits internal validity while increasing external validity.

“while each of the participating retreat centers conducted medical and psychiatric screening of individuals prior to enrollment, these procedures were not standardized across sites. While this heterogeneity increases the study’s external validity, it limits its internal validity.”

May combine two claims.

The absence of a control group and lack of strict eligibility criteria mean it cannot be determined whether improvements are directly attributable to ayahuasca ceremonies or other uncontrolled variables.

“The most notable limitations are the absence of a control group and the lack of strict eligibility criteria for participation in the ayahuasca retreats, which the naturalistic design of the study precluded. Therefore, it cannot be ascertained whether therapeutic improvements are directly attributable to participants’ ayahuasca ceremonies or other uncontrolled variables.”

May combine two claims.

Participants were primarily White and middle-to-upper middle class.

“Finally, while the study sample was relatively diverse with regard to educational backgrounds, participants were primarily White and middle-to-upper middle class.”