Anosmia in COVID-19: Underlying Mechanisms and Assessment of an Olfactory Route to Brain Infection

Butowt, Rafal; von Bartheld, Christopher S.

doi:10.1177/1073858420956905

Cited by 345Olfactory and Sensory Function StudiesLong-Term Effects of COVID-19SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research

Anosmia in COVID-19: Underlying Mechanisms and Assessment of an Olfactory Route to Brain Infection

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Butowt, Rafal, von Bartheld, Christopher S.·2021·The Neuroscientist

DOI 10.1177/1073858420956905PMC PMC7488171

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Abstract

In recent months it has emerged that the novel coronavirus—responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic—causes reduction of smell and taste in a large fraction of patients. The chemosensory deficits are often the earliest, and sometimes the only signs in otherwise asymptomatic carriers of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The reasons for the surprisingly early and specific chemosensory dysfunction in COVID-19 are now beginning to be elucidated. In this hypothesis review, we discuss implications of the recent finding that the prevalence of smell and taste dysfunction in COVID-19 patients differs between populations, possibly because of differences in the spike protein of different virus strains or because of differences in the host proteins that enable virus entry, thus modifying infectivity. We review recent progress in defining underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms of the virus-induced anosmia, with a focus on the emerging crucial role of sustentacular cells in the olfactory epithelium. We critically examine the current evidence whether and how the SARS-CoV-2 virus can follow a route from the olfactory epithelium in the nose to the brain to achieve brain infection, and we discuss the prospects for using the smell and taste dysfunctions seen in COVID-19 as an early and rapid diagnostic screening tool.

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Chemosensory deficits in COVID-19 are often short-lived, with most symptoms resolving in 7-10 days, and sense of smell often returning slightly earlier than taste.
“Such chemosensory deficits experienced in COVID‐19 are often short‐lived, with most symptoms resolving in 7‐10 days, with sense of smell often returning slightly earlier than taste.”
From The oral microbiome: Role of key organisms and complex networks in oral health and disease (2021) · cites this paper as [299]

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Dos Santos NPC, Khayat AS, Rodrigues JCG, Pinto P, de Araujo GS, Pastana LF, and others. 2020. TMPRSS2 variants and their susceptibility to COVID-19: focus in East Asian and European populations. MedRxiv Preprint. 10.1101/2020.06.09.20126680 [DOI] [Google Scholar] · DOI
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Killingley, B., Mann, A., Kalinova, M., Boyers, A., Goonawardane, N., Zhou, J., Lindsell, K., Hare, S. S., Brown, J. C., Frise, R., et al. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01780-9 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Influenza virus and SARS-CoV-2: pathogenesis and host responses in the respiratory tract
Flerlage, T., Boyd, D. F., Meliopoulos, V., Thomas, P. G., & Schultz‐Cherry, S. (2021) · Nature Reviews Microbiology · doi:10.1038/s41579-021-00542-7 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Prevalence of Chemosensory Dysfunction in COVID-19 Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Reveals Significant Ethnic Differences
von Bartheld, C. S., Hagen, M. M., & Butowt, R. (2020) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00460 · Cited by 283 · see citing works
Self-citation
Non-cell-autonomous disruption of nuclear architecture as a potential cause of COVID-19-induced anosmia
Zazhytska, M., Kodra, A. L., Hoagland, D. A., Frere, J. J., Fullard, J. F., Shayya, H. J., McArthur, N. G., Møller, R., Uhl, S. A., Omer, A. D., et al. (2022) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2022.01.024 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
COVID-19 and chronic fatigue syndrome: Is the worst yet to come?
Wostyn, P. (2021) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2020.110469 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“observed in most COVID-19 patients [22].”
BackgroundInfluential
Prognosis and persistence of smell and taste dysfunction in patients with covid-19: meta-analysis with parametric cure modelling of recovery curves
Tan, B. K. J., Han, R., Zhao, J. J., Tan, N. K. W., Quah, E. S. H., Tan, C. J., Chan, Y. H., Teo, N. W. Y., Charn, T. C., See, A., et al. (2022) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2021-069503 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
“Sensorineural mechanisms are currently thought to be the predominant mechanism of covid-19 related smell dysfunction, 54 55 although conductive mechanisms have been implicated too.”
Self-citation
Clinical Olfactory Working Group consensus statement on the treatment of postinfectious olfactory dysfunction
Addison, A. B., Wong, B. L. K., Ahmed, T., Macchi, A., Konstantinidis, I., Huart, C., Frasnelli, J., Fjældstad, A. W., Ramakrishnan, V. R., Rombaux, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2020.12.641 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“Current thinking regarding the mechanism of chemosensory dysfunction in COVID-19 infection suggests that it is caused by viral entry via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors, with infection and death of sustentacular cells in the olfactory epithelium; this does not necessarily lead to infection, damage, death, or…”
Background
Neurological complications and infection mechanism of SARS-CoV-2
Wan, D., Du, T., Hong, W., Chen, L., Que, H., Lu, S., & Peng, X. (2021) · Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy · doi:10.1038/s41392-021-00818-7 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 infects neurons and induces neuroinflammation in a non-human primate model of COVID-19
Beckman, D., Bonillas, A. C., Diniz, G. B., Ott, S. P., Roh, J. W., Elizaldi, S. R., Schmidt, B., Sammak, R. L., Rompay, K. K. A. V., Iyer, S. S., et al. (2022) · Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111573 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
International consensus statement on allergy and rhinology: Olfaction
Patel, Z., Holbrook, E., Turner, J., Adappa, N., Albers, M. W., Altundağ, A., Appenzeller, S., Costanzo, R., Croy, I., Davis, G. E., et al. (2022) · International Forum of Allergy and Rhinology · doi:10.1002/alr.22929 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Anosmia and dysgeusia in SARS-CoV-2 infection: incidence and effects on COVID-19 severity and mortality, and the possible pathobiology mechanisms - a systematic review and meta-analysis
Mutiawati, E., Fahriani, M., Mamada, S. S., Fajar, J. K., Frediansyah, A., Maliga, H. A., Ilmawan, M., Emran, T. B., Ophinni, Y., Ichsan, I., et al. (2021) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.28393.1 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
High prevalence of long-term olfactory, gustatory, and chemesthesis dysfunction in post-COVID-19 patients: a matched case-control study with one-year follow-up using a comprehensive psychophysical evaluation
Boscolo‐Rizzo, P., Hummel, T. R., Hopkins, C. L., Dibattista, M., Menini, A., Spinato, G., Fabbris, C., Emanuelli, E., D’Alessandro, A., Marzolino, R., et al. (2021) · Rhinology Journal · doi:10.4193/rhin21.249 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“While the expression of ACE2 receptor in sustentacular cells of the olfactory neuroepithelium (OE) was consistently demonstrated in several studies ((35)), the expression of the ACE2 receptor in taste buds was confirmed only in a very recent investigation demonstrating the colocalization of ACE2 receptor, SARS-CoV-2,…”
BackgroundResult
The UGT2A1/UGT2A2 locus is associated with COVID-19-related loss of smell or taste
Shelton, J. F., Shastri, A. J., Fletez‐Brant, K., The 23andMe COVID-19 Team, Auton, A., Chubb, A., Fitch, A., Kung, A., Altman, A., Kill, A., et al. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-021-00986-w · Cited by 123 · see citing works
The olfactory nerve is not a likely route to brain infection in COVID-19: a critical review of data from humans and animal models
Butowt, R., Meunier, N., Bryche, B., & von Bartheld, C. S. (2021) · Acta Neuropathologica · doi:10.1007/s00401-021-02314-2 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“Alternative mechanisms of transfer of SARS-CoV-2 from the nose to the brain include the crossing of the blood–brain-barrier after uptake in leukocytes [5, 14, 77, 108], or entering through the endothelial cells of blood vessels [16, 75, 108], reaching CSF-containing spaces associated with the olfactory nerve [14, 19],…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citation
Olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19: new insights into the underlying mechanisms
Butowt, R., Bilińska, K., & von Bartheld, C. S. (2022) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2022.11.003 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“provides a plausible mechanism for COVID-19 induced anosmia [10-11,24,62].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
A genetic link between risk for Alzheimer's disease and severe COVID-19 outcomes via the <i>OAS1</i> gene
Magusali, N., Graham, A. C., Piers, T. M., Panichnantakul, P., Yaman, U., Shoai, M., Reynolds, R. H., Botia, J. A., Brookes, K. J., Guetta-Baranes, T., et al. (2021) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awab337 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“41–45 There is accumulating evidence that these brain structures and cells are infected with SARS-CoV-2 and are altering the cytokine profile of the brain.”
Background
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19)–related smell and taste impairment with widespread diffusion of severe acute respiratory syndrome–coronavirus‐2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) Omicron variant
Boscolo-Rizzo, P., Tirelli, G., Meloni, P., Hopkins, C., Madeddu, G., Vito, A. D., Gardenal, N., Valentinotti, R., Tofanelli, M., Borsetto, D., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1002/alr.22995 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Principles of odor coding in vertebrates and artificial chemosensory systems
Manzini, I., Schild, D., & Natale, C. D. (2021) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00036.2020 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
E484K mutation in SARS-CoV-2 RBD enhances binding affinity with hACE2 but reduces interactions with neutralizing antibodies and nanobodies: Binding free energy calculation studies
Wang, W. B., Liang, Y., Jin, Y. Q., Zhang, J., Su, J. G., & Li, Q. M. (2021) · Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.jmgm.2021.108035 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Compared with the original SARS-CoV-2 strains, the 501Y.V1, 501Y.V2 and 501Y.V3 variants are potentially more transmissible, which may also reduce the effectiveness of the current vaccines and neutralizing antibodies[27].”
Influential
Association of COVID-19 with Comorbidities: An Update
Chatterjee, S., Nalla, L. V., Sharma, M., Sharma, N., Singh, A. A., Malim, F. M., Ghatage, M., Mukarram, M., Pawar, A., Parihar, N., et al. (2023) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.2c00181 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Neurological Manifestations in COVID-19 Patients: A Meta-Analysis
Vitalakumar, D., Sharma, A., Kumar, A., & Flora, S. J. S. (2021) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00353 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
ACE2 expression in rat brain: Implications for COVID-19 associated neurological manifestations
Hernández, V. S., Zetter, M. A., Guerra, E. C., Hernández‐Araiza, I., Karuzin, N., Hernández‐Pérez, O. R., Eiden, L. E., & Zhang, L. (2021) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113837 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“One of the most classical symptoms of COVID-19 is the loss of taste and smell (Butowt and von Bartheld 2020, Mao, Jin et al. 2020).”
Chemosensory Dysfunction in COVID-19: Integration of Genetic and Epidemiological Data Points to D614G Spike Protein Variant as a Contributing Factor
Butowt, R., Bilińska, K., & von Bartheld, C. S. (2020) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00596 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citation
COVID 19-Induced Smell and Taste Impairments: Putative Impact on Physiology
Meunier, N., Briand, L. V., Jacquin, A., Brondel, L., & Pénicaud, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.625110 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Better mouse models are in development to implement a humanized ACE2 with a physiological expression profile (Butowt and von Bartheld, 2020; Sun et al., 2020).”
Background
Neurological consequences of COVID-19 and brain related pathogenic mechanisms: A new challenge for neuroscience
Sarubbo, F., Haji, K. E., Vidal-Balle, A., & Bargay, J. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100399 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Bibliography published so far include cohort studies and case reports, being the prevalence of anosmia in COVID-19 patients calculated to be around 44%, and the prevalence of hypogeusia around 43% (Butowt and von Bartheld, 2020).”
Influential
Expression of SARS-CoV-2-related receptors in cells of the neurovascular unit: implications for HIV-1 infection
Torices, S., Cabrera, R., Stangis, M., Naranjo, O., Fattakhov, N. S., Téglás, T., Adesse, D., & Toborek, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-021-02210-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“COVID-19 patients also experience rhabdomyolysis (13), myositis (14) or peripheral nervous system symptoms, including Guillain-Barré syndrome (15), and taste or olfactory impairment (16, 17), The incidence of neurological complications is estimated to be around 37% in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients (5).”
Brain imaging in patients with COVID-19: A systematic review
Najt, P., Richards, H. L., & Fortune, D. G. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100290 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Viral infection resulted in The brain is among the targets of SARS-CoV-2, resulting in neurological symptoms such as loss of smell and taste (Butowt and Bartheld, 2020).”
Potential pharmacologic treatments for COVID-19 smell and taste loss: A comprehensive review
Khani, E., Khiali, S., Beheshtirouy, S., & Entezari‐Maleki, T. (2021) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2021.174582 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Brain Mechanisms of COVID-19-Sleep Disorders
Semyachkina-Glushkovskaya, O. V., Mamedova, A., Telnova, V., Klimova, M., Saranceva, E. I., Ageev, V., Yu, T., Zhu, D. Y., Penzel, T., & Kurths, J. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms22136917 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“H ) The SARS-CoV-2 via the ACE2 receptor on the centers (olfactory bulb and cortex), thereby reducing smell sensations [150–156].”
Background
The D614G Virus Mutation Enhances Anosmia in COVID-19 Patients: Evidence from a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Studies from South Asia
von Bartheld, C. S., Hagen, M. M., & Butowt, R. (2021) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00542 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citation
Self-reported Taste and Smell Disorders in Patients with COVID-19: Distinct Features in China
Song, J., Deng, Y., Wang, H., Wang, Z., Liao, B., Ma, J., He, C., Li, P., Liu, Y., Alobid, I., et al. (2021) · Current Medical Science · doi:10.1007/s11596-021-2312-7 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Pathophysiology of infection with SARS‐CoV ‐2— What is known and what remains a mystery
Sridhar, S., & Nicholls, J. M. (2021) · Respirology · doi:10.1111/resp.14091 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Within the olfactory mucosa, there has been much attention focused on the sustentacular cells as a target for viral entry.(19) ACE2 has been identified on the motile cilia of the airway epithelial cells,(20) but the use of angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors or receptor blockers did not increase susceptibility to…”
Background
Interventions for the treatment of persistent post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction
O’Byrne, L. M., Webster, K. E., MacKeith, S. A. C., Philpott, C. M., Hopkins, C. L., & Burton, M. J. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013876.pub2 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Pathophysiology and possible treatments for olfactory-gustatory disorders in patients affected by COVID-19
Neta, F. I., Fernandes, A. C. L., Vale, A. J. M., Pinheiro, F. I., Cobucci, R. N., de Azevedo, E. P., & Gúzen, F. P. (2021) · Current Research in Pharmacology and Drug Discovery · doi:10.1016/j.crphar.2021.100035 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“The main cause of the latter is the direct damage that SARS-CoV-2 causes in olfactory receptor neurons located in the olfactory epithelium (Kanjanaumporn et al., 2020; Butowt and Bartheld, 2020).”
Long-Term Complications of COVID-19 Infection in Adolescents and Children
Thallapureddy, K., Thallapureddy, K., Zerda, E., Suresh, N. V., Kamat, D., Rajasekaran, K., & Moreira, A. G. (2022) · Current Pediatrics Reports · doi:10.1007/s40124-021-00260-x · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Addressing Post-COVID Symptoms: A Guide for Primary Care Physicians
Vance, H., Maslach, A., Stoneman, E. K., Harmes, K. M., Ransom, A., Seagly, K., & Furst, W. (2021) · The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine · doi:10.3122/jabfm.2021.06.210254 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“32 Although the explanation is currently not clear, 33 possible explanations as to what may cause anosmia during COVID-19 infection include congestion, damage to the olfactory nerve, in ﬂ ammation in cells within the lining of the nasal cavity, and viral effects on the cranial nerves within the…”
Background
Relationship between COVID‐19 and movement disorders: A narrative review
Schneider, S. A., Hennig, A., & Martino, D. (2021) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.15217 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Genetic variability and the mutation rate within the receptor binding domain of the virus's spike protein influence the prevalence of olfactory disorders in different populations [47].”
Background
Recovery of anosmia in hamsters infected with SARS-CoV-2 is correlated with repair of the olfactory epithelium
Reyna, R. A., Kishimoto‐Urata, M., Urata, S., Makishima, T., Paessler, S., & Maruyama, J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-04622-9 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Insulin fast-dissolving film for intranasal delivery via olfactory region, a promising approach for the treatment of anosmia in COVID-19 patients: Design, in-vitro characterization and clinical evaluation
Mohamad, S. A., Badawi, A. M., & Mansour, H. F. (2021) · International Journal of Pharmaceutics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120600 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Chemosensory Dysfunctions Induced by COVID-19 Can Persist up to 7 Months: A Study of Over 700 Healthcare Workers
Bussière, N., Mei, J., Lévesque-Boissonneault, C., Blais, M., Carazo, S., Gros‐Louis, F., Serres, G. D., Dupré, N., & Frasnelli, J. (2021) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjab038 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The Upper Nasal Space: Option for Systemic Drug Delivery, Mucosal Vaccines and “Nose-to-Brain”
Shrewsbury, S. B. (2023) · Pharmaceutics · doi:10.3390/pharmaceutics15061720 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“Entry of the virus via the nose and, specifically, the olfactory mucosa of the nasal cavity is thought to be responsible for a number of the symptoms of COVID, including anosmia [33] and central nervous system effects [34].”
Background
Pathophysiological relationship between COVID-19 and olfactory dysfunction: A systematic review
Lima, M. H. D. L. C., Cavalcante, A. L. B., & Leão, S. C. (2021) · Brazilian Journal of Otorhinolaryngology · doi:10.1016/j.bjorl.2021.04.001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Is loss of smell an early predictor of COVID-19 severity: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Purja, S., Shin, H., Lee, J.-Y., & Kim, E. Y. (2021) · Archives of Pharmacal Research · doi:10.1007/s12272-021-01344-4 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Structural brain changes in post‐acute COVID‐19 patients with persistent olfactory dysfunction
Campabadal, A., Oltra, J., Junqué, C., Guillén, N., Boti, M. A., Sala‐Llonch, R., Monté, G. C., Lledó, G. M., Bargalló, N., Rami, L., et al. (2022) · Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology · doi:10.1002/acn3.51710 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Interventions for Improving Long COVID-19 Symptomatology: A Systematic Review
Veronese, N., Bonica, R., Cotugno, S., Tulone, O., Camporeale, M., Smith, L., Trott, M., Bruyère, O., Mirarchi, L., Rizzo, G., et al. (2022) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v14091863 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Although the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying COVID-19-related anosmia/dysosmia are still unclear [19], some rehabilitation of the olfactory pathway was achieved in this study.”
Background
Mental health symptoms one year after acute COVID-19 infection: Prevalence and risk factors
Colizzi, M., Peghin, M., Martino, M. D., Bontempo, G., Gerussi, V., Palese, A., Isola, M., Tascini, C., & Balestrieri, M. (2022) · Revista de Psiquiatría y Salud Mental · doi:10.1016/j.rpsm.2022.05.008 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Is There Less Alteration of Smell Sensation in Patients With Omicron SARS-CoV-2 Variant Infection?
Rodríguez‐Sevilla, J. J., Güerri‐Fernández, R., & Recasens, B. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.852998 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“One of the possible rationales could implicate that Caucasians have more often an Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) variant expressed in the olfactory epithelium (12, 13) (presumably in the sustentacular cells of the olfactory epithelium).”
Background
Therapeutic Approaches to the Neurologic Manifestations of COVID-19
Graham, E. L., Koralnik, I. J., & Liotta, E. M. (2022) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-022-01267-y · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“However, SARS-CoV-2 has been found in the sustentacular cells in olfactory epithelium, cells that support the olfactory sensory neurons [181, 182].”
Background
TRP channels in COVID-19 disease: Potential targets for prevention and treatment
Jaffal, S. M., & Abbas, M. A. (2021) · Chemico-Biological Interactions · doi:10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109567 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“TRP channels anosmia, ageusia and hearing loss in COVID-19 Worldwide, it was emerged that COVID-19 infection causes a reduction or loss of taste and smell [77].”
A Detailed Characterisation of Appetite, Sensory Perceptional, and Eating-Behavioural Effects of COVID-19: Self-Reports from the Acute and Post-Acute Phase of Disease
Chaaban, N., Høier, A. T. Z. B., & Andersen, B. V. (2021) · Foods · doi:10.3390/foods10040892 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Pathogenesis and progression of anosmia and dysgeusia during the COVID-19 pandemic
Krishnakumar, H. N., Momtaz, D., Sherwani, A., Mhapankar, A., Gonuguntla, R. K., Maleki, A., Abbas, A., Ghali, A. N., & Afif, A. A. (2022) · European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology · doi:10.1007/s00405-022-07689-w · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“While less is currently understood about the pathogenesis of dysgeusia, ACE2 is significantly expressed in tongue epithelial cells, buccal mucosa, and the oral cavity, as was found in single cell RNA-sequencing studies [14].”
Background
The Molecular Mechanisms of Cognitive Dysfunction in Long COVID: A Narrative Review
Popa, E., Popa, A. E., Poroch, M., Poroch, V., Ungureanu, M. I., Slănină, A. M., Bacușcă, A. I., & Coman, A. E. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26115102 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Endothelial dysfunction is a key driver of Long COVID pathology, particularly within the CNS [109,110].”
COVID-19 Is a Multi-Organ Aggressor: Epigenetic and Clinical Marks
Kgatle, M., Lawal, I. O., Mashabela, G. T., Boshomane, T. M. G., Koatale, P. C., Mahasha, P. W., Ndlovu, H., Vorster, M., Rodrigues, H. G., Zeevaart, J. R., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.752380 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
AT1 Receptors: Their Actions from Hypertension to Cognitive Impairment
Wu, H., Sun, Q., Yuan, S., Wang, J., Li, F., Gao, H., Chen, X., Yang, R., & Xu, J. (2022) · Cardiovascular Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s12012-022-09730-0 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Revealing the mystery of persistent smell loss in long COVID patients
Park, J. W., Wang, X., & Xu, R. (2022) · International Journal of Biological Sciences · doi:10.7150/ijbs.73485 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“First, East Asian populations displayed a 2-3-fold lower rate of olfactory and taste defects than the populations in western countries [53].”
Background
Interventions for the treatment of persistent post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction
O’Byrne, L. M., Webster, K. E., MacKeith, S. A. C., Philpott, C. M., Hopkins, C. L., & Burton, M. J. (2022) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013876.pub3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The Pathogenesis of Cytomegalovirus and Other Viruses Associated with Hearing Loss: Recent Updates
Shi, X., Liu, X., & Sun, Y. (2023) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v15061385 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Imaging Studies in Olfactory Dysfunction Secondary to COVID-19
Keshavarz, P., Haseli, S., Yazdanpanah, F., Bagheri, F., Raygani, N., & Karimi‐Galougahi, M. (2021) · Academic Radiology · doi:10.1016/j.acra.2021.08.010 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
COVID-19 and Alzheimer’s Disease: A Literature Review
Hardan, L., Filtchev, D., Kassem, R., Bourgi, R., Łukomska−Szymańska, M., Tarhini, H., Salloum-Yared, F., Mancino, D., Kharouf, N., & Haïkel, Y. (2021) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina57111159 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“MRI hypersignals of the olfactory epithelial cortex indicate infection especially with the presence of ACE2 receptors and TMPRSS2 in the olfactory epithelium [36].”
Background
Does SARS-CoV-2 affect neurodegenerative disorders? TLR2, a potential receptor for SARS-CoV-2 in the CNS
Szabo, M. P., Iba, M., Nath, A., Masliah, E., & Kim, C. (2022) · Experimental & Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1038/s12276-022-00755-7 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
SARS-CoV-2 and neurodegenerative diseases: what we know and what we don’t
Lingor, P., Demleitner, A. F., Wolff, A. W., & Feneberg, E. (2022) · Journal of Neural Transmission · doi:10.1007/s00702-022-02500-w · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“In a more detailed study of the olfactory mucosa, the virus was found in sustentacular and stem cells of the mucosa while absent from olfactory receptor neurons (ORN) (Butowt and von Bartheld 2020).”
Background
COVID-19 and Parkinson’s disease: Defects in neurogenesis as the potential cause of olfactory system impairments and anosmia
Rethinavel, H. S., Ravichandran, S., Radhakrishnan, R. K., & Kandasamy, M. (2021) · Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy · doi:10.1016/j.jchemneu.2021.101965 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
New Brazilian variant of the SARS-CoV-2 (P1/Gamma) of COVID-19 in Alagoas state
da Silva, J. C., Félix, V., Leão, S. A. B. F., Filho, E. M. T., & Scorza, F. A. (2021) · The Brazilian Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.bjid.2021.101588 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Studies suggest that expression of ACE2 cellular proteins and TMPRSS2 protease in the olfactory epithelium cells are involved in viral access to the human body and detection in oropharyngeal secretions.(2,12) Since ACE2 proteins seem to be expressed in significantly higher levels in older people, this may explain the…”
Interventions for the prevention of persistent post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction
Webster, K. E., O’Byrne, L. M., MacKeith, S. A. C., Philpott, C. M., Hopkins, C. L., & Burton, M. J. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013877.pub2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Expression of the ACE2 Virus Entry Protein in the Nervus Terminalis Reveals the Potential for an Alternative Route to Brain Infection in COVID-19
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The Anti-inflammatory Effect of the Tricyclic Antidepressant Clomipramine and Its High Penetration in the Brain Might Be Useful to Prevent the Psychiatric Consequences of SARS-CoV-2 Infection
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Does serotonin deficiency lead to anosmia, ageusia, dysfunctional chemesthesis and increased severity of illness in COVID-19?
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Biophotonic Strategies of Measurement and Stimulation of the Cranial and the Extracranial Lymphatic Drainage Function
Semyachkina-Glushkovskaya, O. V., Postnov, D. E., Lavrova, A. I., Fedosov, I. V., Borisova, E. G., Nikolenko, V. N., Penzel, T., Kurths, J., & Tuchin, V. V. (2020) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1109/jstqe.2020.3045834 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
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Vestibular Cochlear Manifestations in COVID-19 Cases
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Follow-Up of a Cohort of Patients with Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome in a Belgian Family Practice
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“Cerebral disorders dominate, either by thalamic and subthalamic damage (memory loss), cortical damage (brain fog, anomia, hallucination, paresthesias, abnormal movements), or by bulbar damage (anosmia, dysgeusia, dizziness, orthostatic disorder), although in anosmia, both central and peripheral alterations could be de…”
Background
Disruption of nuclear architecture as a cause of COVID-19 induced anosmiaPreprint
Zazhytska, M., Kodra, A. L., Hoagland, D. A., Fullard, J. F., Shayya, H. J., Omer, A. D., Firestein, S., Gong, Q., Canoll, P., Goldman, J. E., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.02.09.430314 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Chronic Exposure to Environmental Pollutant Ammonia Causes Damage to the Olfactory System and Behavioral Abnormalities in Mice
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Parosmia post COVID-19: an unpleasant manifestation of long COVID syndrome
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Gross and Histopathology of COVID-19 With First Histology Report of Olfactory Bulb Changes
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Neurological Complications of COVID-19: A Review of the Literature
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Mechanistic Understanding of the Olfactory Neuroepithelium Involvement Leading to Short-Term Anosmia in COVID-19 Using the Adverse Outcome Pathway Framework
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MRI evidence of gray matter loss in COVID ‐19 patients with cognitive and olfactory disorders
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“Instead, it may be attributed to the virus’s neurotropism: angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is widely present in the olfactory system and, serving as a viral receptor, it may provide SARS-CoV-2 access to the CNS. 31,32 Propagation of viruses by retrograde axonal transport to the olfactory bulbs and to the CNS ha…”
SARS-CoV-2 invasion of the central nervous: a brief review
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Oral SARS-CoV-2 Inoculation Causes Nasal Viral Infection Leading to Olfactory Bulb Infection: An Experimental Study
Ueha, R., Ito, T., Furukawa, R., Kitabatake, M., Ouji-Sageshima, N., Ueha, S., Koyama, M., Uranaka, T., Kondo, K., & Yamasoba, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2022.924725 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Neuromuscular Complications of SARS-CoV-2 and Other Viral Infections
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Modeling the effectiveness of olfactory testing to limit SARS-CoV-2 transmission
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“[20] Rafal Butowt and Christopher S von Bartheld.”
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Interventions for the prevention of persistent post-COVID-19 olfactory dysfunction
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Olfaction and neurocognition after COVID-19: a scoping review
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“Early investigations have provided preliminary insight into the mechanisms by which COVID-19 acutely affects the olfactory system and whether olfaction provides a window into greater neurological dysfunction caused by the virus (Butowt and Bartheld, 2021; Zazhytska et al., 2022).”
Background
Does the RAAS play a role in loss of taste and smell during COVID-19 infections?
Luchiari, H. R., Giordano, R. J., Sidman, R. L., Pasqualini, R., & Arap, W. (2020) · The Pharmacogenomics Journal · doi:10.1038/s41397-020-00202-8 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Possible mechanisms for loss of smell and taste in the course of COVID-19 disease are being explored [2, 3] but no direct role of the Renin-Angiotensinaldosterone system (RAAS) in anosmia and ageusia has been suggested until now.”
Background

Anosmia in COVID-19: Underlying Mechanisms and Assessment of an Olfactory Route to Brain Infection (Russian translation)
Butowt, R., & von Bartheld, C. S. (2021) · Juvenis scientia · doi:10.32415/jscientia_2021_7_5_28-59 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
Anosmia in COVID-19: A Bumpy Road to Establishing a Cellular Mechanism
Bilińska, K., & Butowt, R. (2020) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00406 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
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Smell dysfunction in patients with COVID-19
Artemenko, A. R., Danilov, A. B., & Plieva, A. M. (2021) · Russian neurological Journal · doi:10.30629/2658-7947-2020-25-6-4-11 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Taste Dysfunction in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Patients: A Review of Possible Pathological Mechanisms and Implications
Shanab, A., Sofia, D. B., & Aldieb, E. (2021) · Khalij-Libya Journal of Dental and Medical Research · doi:10.47705/kjdmr.215110
Anosmia: an evolution of our understanding of its importance in COVID-19 and what questions remain to be answered
Saussez, S., Lechien, J. R., & Hopkins, C. L. (2020) · European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology · doi:10.1007/s00405-020-06285-0 · Cited by 66 · see citing works

Authors: Butowt, R., & von Bartheld, C. S.
Affiliations: Department of Molecular Cell Genetics, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
Center of Biomedical Research Excellence in Cell Biology, Reno School of Medicine, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
ORCID: Butowt, Rafal
von Bartheld, Christopher S.
Venue: The Neuroscientist
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2020-09-11
Volume: 27
Issue: 6
Pages: 582-603
ISSN: 1073-8584 (ISSN-L)
1089-4098
DOI: 10.1177/1073858420956905
PMC: PMC7488171
OpenAlex: W3084613638
Cited by: 345
References: 143
Citations by year: 2026: 14 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 97 · 2021: 91 · 2020: 8 · 2018: 2
FWCI: 23.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: The Neuroscientist (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: national institutes of health (GM103554)
Uniwersytet Mikolaja Kopernika w Toruniu (Excellence Initiative -Research University ID-UB)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Olfactory and Sensory Function Studies
Health Sciences › Medicine › Neurology › Long-Term Effects of COVID-19
Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Research
Keywords: anosmia, COVID-19 pandemic, SARS-CoV-2, olfactory dysfunction, taste disorders, olfactory epithelium, sustentacular cells, asymptomatic carriers
MeSH terms: COVID-19, Anosmia, Animals, Brain, Humans, Nasal Mucosa, Smell, Olfactory Perception

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Anosmia in COVID-19: Underlying Mechanisms and Assessment of an Olfactory Route to Brain Infection

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