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Cited by 86Multilingual Education and PolicyIndigenous Health, Education, and RightsAustralian Indigenous Culture and History

Decolonizing the digital landscape: the role of technology in Indigenous language revitalization

Open access
Meighan, Paul J·2021·AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples
DOI 10.1177/11771801211037672PMC PMC13038090
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Abstract

Due to colonization and imperialism, Indigenous languages continue to be threatened and endangered. Resources to learn Indigenous languages are often severely limited, such as a lack of trained or proficient teachers. Materials which follow external standards or Western pedagogies may not meet the needs of the local community. One common goal for Indigenous language revitalization initiatives is to promote intergenerational language transmission and use in multiple social domains, such as the home. Could the use of technology assist in Indigenous language revitalization? And what would be its role? This article, emerging from ongoing research, aims to synthesize some key takeaways on the role of digital and online technologies in Indigenous language revitalization over the past three decades since the foundation of the World Wide Web in 1989. The article highlights how Indigenous communities, content creators, scholars and visionaries have contributed to an ongoing decolonization of the digital landscape.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual review synthesizes three decades of literature on digital and online technology in Indigenous language revitalization (ILR), arguing that the digital landscape has shifted from Web 1.0 information transfer toward Web 2.0/3.0 Indigenous negotiation and creation. It concludes that technology can support ILR when community-determined and decolonial, but is not a substitute for face-to-face interaction or a panacea.

Key findings

  • Web 1.0 ILR initiatives (e.g., Te Wahapu in 1990 for Māori, Leoki in 1993 for Hawaiian, FirstVoices founded 2003) largely involved unilateral digital information transfer; Buszard-Welcher found that 38% of 50 “Native American or Canadian” Indigenous language sites belonged to groups, and only four were created by a “Tribal” member or official organization.
  • Web 2.0/3.0 eras enable more Indigenous digital negotiation and creation through apps, websites, social media, coding, archives, and VR/AR/AI; examples include FirstVoices’ Keyboard App enabling typing in over 100 Indigenous languages and Te Hiku Media’s “first speech-to-text algorithm in Te Reo Māori.”
  • The article highlights Indigenous “Produsers” and creators decolonizing the digital landscape, including SIKU, KOBE Learn, Talk Sauk, C’ek’aedi Hwnax, Mukurtu, Never Alone, Honour Water, Biidaaban: First Light, Buffalo Tongue, and Hua Kiʻi.
  • Technology’s role is not neutral; the article argues for community-determined ILR, language reclamation, data sovereignty, and relational language technologies rather than externally imposed Western standards or digitally “thriving” metrics.

Methods

  • Conceptual review synthesizing academic and grey literature—reports, policy literature, government documents—from the past three decades, supplemented by websites and online newspapers.
  • Uses a decolonizing approach informed by Indigenous research methodologies and epistemological frameworks, decentering colonial/Western library knowledge organization systems.
  • Sources were selected if they fulfilled at least three criteria: colonization or decolonization; Indigenous or colonial education; Indigenous or Western technology and social media; Indigenous language revitalization inquiry and technological initiatives; Indigenous methodologies and methods; citation and reference list snowballing was also used.

Limitations

  • Stated: the article is non-exhaustive and largely focuses on digital and online technologies in the three decades since the World Wide Web’s creation in 1989.
  • Stated: more research needs to be carried out by or with Indigenous Peoples on how Indigenous Peoples view and use technology, what purpose it serves, and whether it impacts day-to-day language usage and cultural identity.
  • Evident: as a conceptual review, it synthesizes literature and illustrative examples rather than presenting primary empirical data, a participant sample, or measured language outcomes.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/11771801211037672

Cites

45 of 45 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

18 of 75 cited sources checked · 10 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingcitation

    Websites and apps which are facilitative, collaborative, and instructional have been created.

    “Websites and apps which are facilitative, such as dictionaries, verb conjugators, and spellcheckers; collaborative, such as games, forums, and simulations; and instructional, such as teaching materials and drills (Wagner, 2017), have been created.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wagner, 2017
  • Premisecitation

    Indigenous youth can connect, affirm and give a voice to their own particular cultural and linguistic identities which have not been constructed, imagined, or set by outsiders.

    “Indigenous youth can connect, affirm and give a voice to their own particular cultural and linguistic identities which have not been constructed, imagined, or set by outsiders (Katsi’sorókwas Jacobs, 2019; Rice et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Katsi’sorókwas Jacobs, 2019 source

      The Theoretical Framework (p. 6) describes Indigenous youth creating digital content that revitalizes relationships to culture and challenges fixed notions of Indigenous identity. The Implications section (p. 13) calls for forums where youth can tell their own stories rather than have their experiences defined for them. These passages support the cultural-identity and youth-voice parts of the claim, but do not specifically establish that youth affirm linguistic identities. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Rice et al., 2016 source
  • Premisecitation

    Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube have assisted ILR and Indigenous communities in sharing community and cultural knowledge, events, memes and snippets of language.

    “Although social media can have drawbacks and very real negatives such as cyber bullying and cyber racism, platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube have assisted ILR and Indigenous communities in sharing community and cultural knowledge, events, memes and snippets of language (Castleton, 2018; Rice et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Castleton, 2018 source
    • cites Rice et al., 2016 source

      The Community and family connections section describes Indigenous people sharing knowledge and stories on Twitter and events on Facebook. The Cultural compatibility of multimedia section discusses sharing cultural knowledge and using local languages online. The copy does not specifically address ILR or the sharing of memes and language snippets. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingcitation

    These include using the Internet and web-based resources to share land-based planning activities, such as information about hunting, fishing and other traditional economic activities.

    “These include using the Internet and web-based resources to share land-based planning activities, such as information about hunting, fishing and other traditional economic activities (Beaton & Carpenter, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Beaton & Carpenter, 2016 source
  • Premisecitation

    Many technology-enabled and self-determined ILR initiatives during the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras have been centering community needs rather than externally defined or set goals, such as grammatical fluency or a digitally thriving status.

    “Many technology-enabled and self-determined ILR initiatives during the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras have been centering community needs rather than externally defined or set goals, such as grammatical fluency (Leonard, 2017) or a digitally “thriving status” (Kornai, 2013, p. 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leonard, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kornai, 2013 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 40
  • May combine two claims. 28

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Mukurtu (Dilly Bag) CMS is a community driven software that addresses the ethical curation of, and access to, Indigenous cultural heritage.

    “Mukurtu (Dilly Bag) CMS is a “community driven software that addresses the ethical curation of, and access to, [Indigenous] cultural heritage” (Christen et al., 2017 para. 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Christen et al., 2017 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Never Alone game was developed by the first Indigenous-owned gaming company, Upper One Games, in collaboration with the Iñupiat, an Alaska native people.

    “The Never Alone game was developed by the first Indigenous-owned gaming company, Upper One Games, in collaboration with the Iñupiat, an Alaska native people (Winter & Boudreau, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winter & Boudreau, 2018 source

      The Digital Storytelling section identifies Upper One Games as the developer of Never Alone and the first Indigenous-owned commercial gaming company in the United States. It says the game is based on an Iñupiaq tale and features videos of Elders, but does not explicitly say it was developed in collaboration with the Iñupiat or identify them as an Alaska Native people. The claim also omits the source’s US and commercial qualifiers on “first.” (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These small examples 'connect youth and Elders to help promote intergenerational knowledge transmission . . . all the while encouraging language revitalization'.

    “These small examples “connect youth and Elders to help promote intergenerational knowledge transmission . . . all the while encouraging language revitalization” (Winter & Boudreau, 2018, p. 45).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winter & Boudreau, 2018 source

      In “Gathering STEAM” (cited as p. 45), Winter and Boudreau use the quoted language about connecting youth and elders and encouraging language revitalization. They frame these as possibilities for makerspaces—what they “may” do and “could include”—rather than outcomes the small examples have already achieved. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The digital divide begins to narrow as most Indigenous Peoples, even in remote areas, now have access to a cellphone and use it to interact and communicate.

    “The digital divide, despite still needing improvements in terms of physical and non-physical access and equitable representation, begins to narrow as most Indigenous Peoples, even in remote areas, now have access to a cellphone and use it to interact and communicate (Carpenter et al., 2017; Rice et al., 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Carpenter et al., 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rice et al., 2016 source

      The Findings and Community and family connections sections report widespread mobile-phone availability in remote Australian communities and use of phones to communicate, particularly among Indigenous young people. They do not establish that most Indigenous people, including those in remote areas, have cellphone access. The Barriers to social media use section also identifies remoteness as a barrier. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Western linguists or scholars, such as Kornai (2013), can assume that some Indigenous languages are under-resourced due to a lack of textual speech data or standardized language forms.

    “Western linguists or scholars, such as Kornai (2013), can assume that some Indigenous languages are under-resourced due to a lack of textual speech data or standardized language forms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kornai, 2013 source

      The Materials section (page unavailable) says standardized spelling is needed to collect larger text corpora, and the Methods section describes how difficult it is for an under-resourced language to develop tools that enforce a unified literary standard. The Discussion also gives Kanuri as an example with very little online text. The paper does not specifically attribute under-resourcing to a lack of speech data, and its discussion concerns digital resources and use rather than Indigenous languages as a group. (LLM, conf=0.82)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bird (2020) remarks that this is a colonising frame which assumes that major western languages are standard-bearers, and that Indigenous languages need the standard technologies.

    “Bird (2020) remarks that this is a “colonising frame” which assumes “that major western languages are standard-bearers, and that Indigenous languages need the standard technologies” (pp. 3507–3508).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bird, 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A dictionary app may represent an access point for one participant, and a marker of recognition in the digital realm to another, and this latter is no less valuable, given that prestige is a factor in language shift.

    “Bird underscores, “a dictionary app may represent an access point for one participant, and a marker of recognition in the digital realm to another. And this latter is no less valuable, given that prestige is a factor in language shift” (p. 3509).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bird, 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Revitalization and reclamation strategies during the Web 1.0 era have involved creating spoken and written dictionaries and audio- or video-recording Elders speaking their Indigenous language.

    “Revitalization and reclamation strategies during the Web 1.0 era have involved creating spoken and written dictionaries and audio- or video-recording Elders speaking their Indigenous language.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Technology, despite not yet being fully dialogic in terms of co-creation of knowledge, was a means of interaction among language activists.

    “Technology, despite not yet being fully dialogic in terms of co-creation of knowledge, was a means of interaction among language activists.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Buszard-Welcher (2001) found that 38% of the 50 sites on 'Native American or Canadian' Indigenous languages belonged to groups and only four of those were created by a 'Tribal' member or official organization.

    “Looking in more detail at who creates endangered language websites and the level of knowledge co-creation, Buszard-Welcher (2001) finds that 38% of the 50 sites on “Native American or Canadian” Indigenous languages belonged to groups and only four of those were created by a “Tribal” member or official organization (p. 332).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buszard-Welcher, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Technology in the Web 1.0 era did offer much potential for ILR and also had an additional 'cool' element.

    “Technology in the Web 1.0 era did offer much potential for ILR and also had an additional “cool” element (Buszard-Welcher, 2001, p. 337).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buszard-Welcher, 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Movies have been made in Indigenous languages which are critically endangered, such as the film SGaawaay K'uuna released in 2018 and made entirely in the Haida language.

    “Movies have been made in Indigenous languages which are critically endangered, such as the film SGaawaay K’uuna (The Edge of the Knife) released in 2018 and made entirely in the Haida language.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Technology connected language activists both within, across and outside of Indigenous communities, fostered relationships across the globe, and was a crucial 'key motivator in the sense they are 'not going it alone''.

    “Technology connected language activists both within, across and outside of Indigenous communities, fostered relationships across the globe, and was a crucial “key motivator in the sense they are ‘not going it alone’” (Grenoble & Whaley, 2006, p. 190).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Grenoble & Whaley, 2006

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Jeremy Dutcher released the album Wolastoqiyik Lintuwakonawa in which Jeremy sings in the Wolastoqiyik language.

    “And Jeremy Dutcher, the 2018 Polaris Music Prize winner, released the album Wolastoqiyik Lintuwakonawa (Our Maliseets Songs) in which Jeremy sings in the Wolastoqiyik language.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Forms of technology use between 2005 and the present day have involved cross-over elements and interplay which are still emerging, can be categorized as both Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, and do not neatly fit a chronological timeframe.

    “Forms of technology use between 2005 and the present day have involved cross-over elements and interplay which are still emerging, can be categorized as both Web 2.0 and Web 3.0, and do not neatly fit a chronological timeframe.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    These initiatives are low-tech, mid-tech and high-tech, depending on community needs and the learning context.

    “These initiatives are low-tech (one sensory mode), mid-tech (two sensory modes) and high-tech (multimodal interactive technology) (Galla, 2009), depending on community needs and the learning context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Galla, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    ILR initiatives have begun to build upon the strategies incorporated during the Web 1.0 era and take advantage of new advances in digital and online technologies during the Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 eras.

    “ILR initiatives have begun to build upon the strategies incorporated during the Web 1.0 era and take advantage of new advances in digital and online technologies during the Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 eras.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The main feature of the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras is moving beyond Digital Information to Digital Negotiation and Digital Creation.

    “The main feature of the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras is moving beyond Digital Information to Digital Negotiation and Digital Creation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There are now more Indigenous technologies and learning environments that have been implemented and created by and for Indigenous Peoples.

    “There are now more Indigenous technologies and learning environments that have been implemented and created by and for Indigenous Peoples.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The examples of Indigenous technology initiatives cited in the article are representative of a broader trend of decolonization in the digital landscape.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Coders North in Northern Ontario launched in 2019 to bring together Indigenous digital producers, teach coding and highlight opportunities for Indigenous youth to learn through digital technology.

    “Coders North in Northern Ontario also launched in 2019 to bring together Indigenous digital producers, teach coding and highlight opportunities for Indigenous youth to learn through digital technology (Engel, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Engel, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The Web is not monolithic or linear in terms of development and is still evolving.

    “The Web, however, is not monolithic or linear in terms of development and is still evolving.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The emerging Web 3.0 era is viewed as having increased user creation, cooperation and a decentralization, localization and democratization of power.

    “The emerging Web 3.0 era is viewed as having increased user creation, cooperation (Barassi & Treré, 2012) and a decentralization, localization and democratization of power.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barassi & Treré, 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The digital landscape continues to be decolonized.

    “The digital landscape continues to be decolonized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The examples of Indigenous technology initiatives cited in the article are representative of a broader trend of decolonization in the digital landscape.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Technology is the result of practical applied knowledge, skills and networks which are continually evolving, fluid and context-dependent.

    “Technology is the result of practical applied knowledge, skills and networks which are continually evolving, fluid and context-dependent (Silverstone, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Silverstone, 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The continually evolving Internet, or Web, is a complex socio-technical environment with multiple uses dependent on social contexts and relationships.

    “The continually evolving Internet, or Web, is a complex socio-technical environment with multiple uses dependent on social contexts and relationships (Barassi & Treré, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barassi & Treré, 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The notions of Web 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0 have limitations and are cultural constructs influenced by Western business rhetoric.

    “The notions of Web 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0, “although important when analysing the political economy of the Web” (Barassi & Treré, 2012, p. 1269), have limitations and are cultural constructs influenced by Western business rhetoric.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barassi & Treré, 2012 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tim Berners-Lee envisaged 'universality' and dictated the monolingual English design of the web.

    “For example, Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, envisaged “universality” and “dictated the monolingual [English] design of the web” (Kelly-Holmes, 2019, p. 28).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kelly-Holmes, 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Web needs to be understood as an integrated socio-technical system, in which different Web applications and stages coexist.

    “As Barassi and Treré (2012) remark, “the Web needs to be understood as an integrated socio-technical system, in which different Web applications and stages coexist” (p. 1273).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barassi & Treré, 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The examples of ILR initiatives above have been fundamental for making Indigenous voices heard and represented across the globe during the beginnings of the digital age.

    “The examples of ILR initiatives above have been fundamental for making Indigenous voices heard and represented across the globe during the beginnings of the digital age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Honour Water is a singing game and features Anishinaabe songs and teachings about the importance of protecting water.

    “Honour Water is a singing game and features Anishinaabe songs and teachings about the importance of protecting water (Hearne & LaPensée, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hearne & LaPensée, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The AR prototype Hua Kiʻi currently has a modest feature set but 10 years ago the technologies that enable it were unattainable beyond well-funded labs.

    “the AR prototype Hua Kiʻi “currently has a modest feature set but 10 years ago the technologies that enable it were unattainable beyond well-funded labs” (M. Running Wolf, 2020, p. 120).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M. Running Wolf, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This self-determining creation step is necessary to decolonize the digital landscape and ensure that Indigenous voices and worldviews are also represented and privileged online in a culturally relevant way.

    “This self-determining creation step is necessary to decolonize the digital landscape and ensure that Indigenous voices and worldviews are also represented and privileged online in a culturally relevant way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In dominant Western business rhetoric, the Web 2.0 era is characterized by increased user participation or collaboration.

    “In dominant Western business rhetoric, Web 2.0 era is characterized by increased user participation or collaboration (Barassi & Treré, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barassi & Treré, 2012 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Incorporating the multimodality that advances in technology can afford also goes well with Indigenous ways of knowing and being.

    “Incorporating the multimodality that advances in technology can afford also goes well with Indigenous ways of knowing and being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The review used a decolonizing approach informed by Indigenous research methodologies and epistemological frameworks.

    “A decolonizing approach, informed by Indigenous research methodologies and epistemological frameworks (Battiste, 2002; Smith, 2012), to reviewing and synthesizing the literature has been taken.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Battiste, 2002

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Smith, 2012

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Digital and online technologies in the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras are dramatically more inexpensive than in the Web 1.0 era and barriers to entry have been considerably reduced.

    “Digital and online technologies in the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras are dramatically more inexpensive than in the Web 1.0 era and barriers to entry have been considerably reduced.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Technology is not neutral and is the extension of the knowledge and belief system which has led to its creation.

    “In other words, technology is not neutral and is the extension of the knowledge and belief system which has led to its creation (Strate, 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Strate, 2012

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This digital divide was more pronounced for some communities, and many who could have benefitted from the technological innovations of this period did not have as many chances to fully participate.

    “This digital divide was more pronounced for some communities, and many who could have benefitted from the technological innovations of this period did not have as many chances to fully participate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    This element can appeal particularly to the younger Indigenous generation and help restore prestige and pride in Indigenous languages and cultures.

    “This element can appeal particularly to the younger Indigenous generation and help restore prestige and pride in Indigenous languages and cultures (Buszard-Welcher 2001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buszard-Welcher, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Virtual Songlines in Australia taught Indigenous youth to code their own content and be proud of their culture and heritage.

    “Virtual Songlines in Australia taught Indigenous youth to code their own content and be proud of their culture and heritage (Microsoft Asia News Center, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Microsoft Asia News Center, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Hua Kiʻi is an AR prototype of an Indigenous language image recognition app with geolocation functionalities which allows the user to take a photo of an object and learn the word for that object.

    “And Hua Kiʻi is an AR prototype of an “Indigenous language image recognition app with geolocation functionalities [which] allows the user to take a photo of an object and learn the word for that object” (C. Running Wolf et al., 2020, p. 110).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites C. Running Wolf et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Indigenous content creators, developers, and visionaries are becoming increasingly visible and influential in decolonizing the digital landscape to better serve Indigenous Peoples, their languages, and their communities.

    “Indigenous content creators, developers, and visionaries are becoming increasingly visible and influential in decolonizing the digital landscape to better serve Indigenous Peoples, their languages, and their communities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The examples of Indigenous technology initiatives cited in the article are representative of a broader trend of decolonization in the digital landscape.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Indigenous Peoples can assert their right to speak in their Indigenous languages and in a way that is respectful to their local communities.

    “Indigenous Peoples can assert their “right to speak” (Darwin & Norton, 2014, p. 59) in their Indigenous languages and in a way that is respectful to their local communities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Darwin & Norton, 2014

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Language revitalisation in areas of language diversity and small populations is going to be very different than for languages like Hebrew, Hawaiian and Māori.

    “As Leanne Hinton remarks, “language revitalisation in areas of language diversity and small populations is going to be very different than for languages like Hebrew, Hawaiian and Māori” (University of British Columbia, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites University of British Columbia, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    This article demonstrates that there are very promising indicators of Indigenous socio-technological self-determination.

    “This article demonstrates that there are very promising indicators of Indigenous socio-technological self-determination.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The examples of Indigenous technology initiatives cited in the article are representative of a broader trend of decolonization in the digital landscape.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This process continues to this day with Indigenous social media, websites, movies, music, apps and more.

    “This process continues to this day with Indigenous social media, websites, movies, music, apps and more.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The social use of technology in ILR is not necessarily considered a substitute to real-life face-to-face interaction or as a panacea for ILR.

    “The social use of technology in ILR is also not necessarily considered a substitute to real-life face-to-face interaction or as a panacea for ILR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For some Indigenous communities and ILR initiatives, the goal may not be fluency or to have standardized language forms, voice recognition, such as Siri and Alexa, spellcheckers, or autocorrect.

    “For some Indigenous communities and ILR initiatives, the goal may not be fluency or to have standardized language forms, voice recognition, such as Siri and Alexa, spellcheckers, or autocorrect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Technology can be in relation to existing and future initiatives, a means to reclaim pride in Indigenous languages and cultures, and a way for existing and future speakers and learners to learn and interact.

    “Technology can be in relation to existing and future initiatives, a means to reclaim pride in Indigenous languages and cultures, and a way for existing and future speakers and learners to learn and interact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Endangered language cellphone use, apps or social media, such as Facebook or Instagram, have been largely used, especially by Indigenous youth, in ILR initiatives during the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras.

    “These modes have been largely used, especially by Indigenous youth, in ILR initiatives during the Web 2.0 and 3.0 eras.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such stereotypes facilitate a colonial and imperialistic exploitation and conquest of the digital world.

    “and facilitate a colonial and imperialistic exploitation and conquest of the digital world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Indigenous language learners need to find technology culturally engaging and integrated in an accessible, current and user-friendly way that enables language learning beyond isolated words or decontextualized phrases.

    “Indigenous language learners need to find technology culturally engaging (Pitawanakwat, 2018) and integrated in an accessible, current and user-friendly way that enables language learning beyond isolated words or decontextualized phrases (Galla, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pitawanakwat, 2018 source
    • cites Galla, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    As with face-to-face interactions, the intent and relationship that one forms and builds with technology will decide what impact its present and future use will have.

    “As with face-to-face interactions, the intent and relationship that one forms and builds with technology will decide what impact its present and future use will have.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Leonard (2017) calls this a framework of language reclamation which centers community definitions of language at every stage, and thus prioritizes Indigenous needs and ways of knowing in the academic research, language pedagogies, and other work that underlie a given community's language efforts.

    “Leonard (2017) calls this a framework of “language reclamation” which “centers community definitions of language at every stage, and thus prioritizes Indigenous needs and ways of knowing in the academic research, language pedagogies, and other work that underlie a given community’s language efforts” (p. 18).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Leonard, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Resources to learn Indigenous languages are often severely limited, such as a lack of trained or proficient teachers.

    “Resources to learn Indigenous languages are often severely limited, such as a lack of trained or proficient teachers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Materials which follow external standards or Western pedagogies may not meet the needs of the local community.

    “Materials which follow external standards or Western pedagogies may not meet the needs of the local community.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    One common goal for Indigenous language revitalization initiatives is to promote intergenerational language transmission and use at home.

    “One common goal for Indigenous language revitalization (ILR) initiatives is to promote intergenerational language transmission and use at home.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The World Wide Web was created by Western people for a Western audience.

    “Underscoring the dominant Western capitalistic worldview is particularly important here as the World Wide Web was created by Western people for a Western audience.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The examples of Indigenous technology initiatives cited in the article are representative of a broader trend of decolonization in the digital landscape.

    “This article demonstrates that there are very promising indicators of Indigenous socio-technological self-determination.”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Taylor et al. citation gives a page outside the reference's range

    Minor

    The in-text citation specifies page 3511, while the reference list places the cited work on pages 161-72.

  • Leonard (2001) citation gives a page outside the reference's range

    Minor

    The example is cited to page 4, but the reference list gives the Leonard (2001) item as pages 11-15.

  • Warschauer (1998) citation includes a page outside the reference's range

    Minor

    The quotation is attributed to pages 139-140, but the reference list gives the article's page range as 140-161.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 15

  1. Battiste M., 2002, Indigenous knowledge and pedagogy in First Nations education: A literature review with recommendations
  2. Benton R. A., 1996, Telecollaboration in foreign language learning, 187
  3. Berez A. L., 2012, Language Documentation & Conservation, 6, 237
  4. Cazden C. B., 2002, Nurturing Native languages, 53
  5. Darwin R., 2014, Education Matters, 2, 55
  6. Galla C., 2009, Indigenous language revitalization: Encouragement, guidance & lessons learned, 167
  7. Henke R. E., 2016, Language Documentation & Conservation, 10, 411
  8. Hinton L., 2013, Bringing our language home: Language revitalization for families
  9. Lameman B. A., 2011, Journal of Game Design and Development Education, 1, 54
  10. O’Neal J., 2014, Identity palimpsests: Archiving ethnicity in the U.S. and Canada, 125
  11. Rice E. S., 2016, International Journal for Equity in Health, 15, 1
  12. Running Wolf C., 2020, Indigenous protocol and artificial intelligence position paper, 110
  13. Running Wolf M, 2020, Indigenous protocol and artificial intelligence position paper, 117
  14. Wagner I., 2017, Language Documentation & Conservation, 11, 133
  15. Williams S., 2002, Indigenous languages across the community, 219

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Meighan, P. J.
Affiliations
McGill University (CA)
Corresponding author
Meighan, Paul J
ORCID
Meighan, Paul J
Venue
AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2021-08-11
Volume
17
Issue
3
Pages
397-405
ISSN
  • 1174-1740 (ISSN-L)
  • 1177-1801
DOI
10.1177/11771801211037672
PMC
PMC13038090
OpenAlex
W3193463964
Semantic Scholar
9903d58d485c9d5569440b18b69ac73f0b344a7a
Cited by
86
References
45
Citations by year
2026: 17 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 7
FWCI
30.55
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • AlterNative An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
social sciences and humanities research council of canada (#767-2020-2826)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Linguistics and Language › Multilingual Education and Policy
  • Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
  • Social Sciences › Anthropology › Australian Indigenous Culture and History
Keywords
Indigenous language revitalization, decolonization, digital technologies, online language resources, intergenerational language transmission, endangered languages, language teaching, digital landscape

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-26.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-26.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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