CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 479Digital Media and PhilosophyDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsInnovative Human-Technology Interaction

Citizens Versus the Internet: Confronting Digital Challenges With Cognitive Tools

Open access
Kozyreva, Anastasia, Lewandowsky, Stephan, Hertwig, Ralph·2020·Psychological Science in the Public Interest
DOI 10.1177/1529100620946707PMC PMC7745618
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The Internet has evolved into a ubiquitous and indispensable digital environment in which people communicate, seek information, and make decisions. Despite offering various benefits, online environments are also replete with smart, highly adaptive choice architectures designed primarily to maximize commercial interests, capture and sustain users’ attention, monetize user data, and predict and influence future behavior. This online landscape holds multiple negative consequences for society, such as a decline in human autonomy, rising incivility in online conversation, the facilitation of political extremism, and the spread of disinformation. Benevolent choice architects working with regulators may curb the worst excesses of manipulative choice architectures, yet the strategic advantages, resources, and data remain with commercial players. One way to address some of this imbalance is with interventions that empower Internet users to gain some control over their digital environments, in part by boosting their information literacy and their cognitive resistance to manipulation. Our goal is to present a conceptual map of interventions that are based on insights from psychological science. We begin by systematically outlining how online and offline environments differ despite being increasingly inextricable. We then identify four major types of challenges that users encounter in online environments: persuasive and manipulative choice architectures, AI-assisted information architectures, false and misleading information, and distracting environments. Next, we turn to how psychological science can inform interventions to counteract these challenges of the digital world. After distinguishing among three types of behavioral and cognitive interventions—nudges, technocognition, and boosts—we focus on boosts, of which we identify two main groups: (a) those aimed at enhancing people’s agency in their digital environments (e.g., self-nudging, deliberate ignorance) and (b) those aimed at boosting competencies of reasoning and resilience to manipulation (e.g., simple decision aids, inoculation). These cognitive tools are designed to foster the civility of online discourse and protect reason and human autonomy against manipulative choice architectures, attention-grabbing techniques, and the spread of false information.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1529100620946707

Cites

48 of 48 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • By making phone use less rewarding, grayscale mode nudges individuals to use their phones less.

    “Thus, by making phone use less rewarding, the grayscale mode nudges individuals to use their phones less (Kozyreva et al., 2020).”

    From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Kozyreva et al., 2020

    The section “Self-nudging: boosting control over one’s digital environment” (page unavailable) describes changing phone settings and digital surroundings to reduce distracting use. It does not discuss grayscale mode or say that making a phone less rewarding through grayscale reduces phone use. (LLM, conf=0.79)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Red notification badges normally evoke a sense of urgency to act upon the notification.

    “Moreover, grayscaling affects the color of noti fi cation badges (i.e., the red circle on the upper right corner of an app icon displaying the number of unread noti fi cations), of which the red color normally evokes a sense of urgency to act upon the noti fi cation (Bartoli & Benedetto, 2022; Kozyreva et al., 2020).”

    From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Kozyreva et al., 2020

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 196

  1. Acquisti A. Brandimarte L. Loewenstein G. (2015). Privacy and human behavior in the age of information. Science, 347, 509– 514. 10.1126/science.aaa1465 25635091 · DOI · Paper page
  2. Aghaei S. Nematbakhsh M. A. Farsani H. K. (2012). Evolution of the world wide web: From WEB 1.0 TO WEB 4.0. International Journal of Web & Semantic Technology, 3(1), 1– 10. 10.5121/ijwest.2012.3101 · DOI
  3. Allen J. Howland B. Mobius M. M. Rothschild D. M. Watts D. (2020). Evaluating the fake news problem at the scale of the information ecosystem. Science, 6(14), Article aay3539. 10.1126/sciadv.aay3539 PMC7124954 32284969 · DOI · Paper page
  4. Amazeen M. A. Wojdynski B. W. (2018). The effects of disclosure format on native advertising recognition and audience perceptions of legacy and online news publishers. Journalism. Advance online publication. 10.1177/1464884918754829 · DOI
  5. Anderson A. A. Brossard D. Scheufele D. A. Xenos M. A. Ladwig P. (2014). The “nasty effect”: Online incivility and risk perceptions of emerging technologies. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19, 373– 387. 10.1111/jcc4.12009 · DOI
  6. Antoci A. Bonelli L. Paglieri F. Reggiani T. Sabatini F. (2019). Civility and trust in social media. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 160, 83– 99. 10.1016/j.jebo.2019.02.026 · DOI
  7. Arshad A. Anderson B. Sharif A. (2019). Comparison of organ donation and transplantation rates between opt-out and opt-in systems. Kidney International, 95, 1453– 1460. 10.1016/j.kint.2019.01.036 31010718 · DOI
  8. Bakshy E. Messing S. Adamic L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinions on Facebook. Science, 348, 1130– 1132. 10.1126/science.aaa1160 25953820 · DOI · Paper page
  9. Banerjee S. Chua A. Y. K. Kim J.-J. (2017). Don’t be deceived: Using linguistic analysis to learn how to discern online review authenticity. Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 68, 1525– 1538. 10.1002/asi.23784 · DOI
  10. Barasch A. Berger J. (2014). Broadcasting and narrowcasting: How audience size affects what people share. Journal of Marketing Research, 51, 286– 299. 10.1509/jmr.13.0238 · DOI
  11. Baruh L. Secinti E. Cemalcilar Z. (2017). Online privacy concerns and privacy management: A meta-analytical review. Journal of Communication, 67, 26– 53. 10.1111/jcom.12276 · DOI · Paper page
  12. Barzilai S. Zohar A. (2012). Epistemic thinking in action: Evaluating and integrating online sources. Cognition and Instruction, 30, 39– 85. 10.1080/07370008.2011.636495 · DOI
  13. Basol M. Roozenbeek J. van der Linden S. (2020). Good news about bad news: Gamified inoculation boosts confidence and cognitive immunity against fake news. Journal of Cognition, 3(1), Article 2. 10.5334/joc.91 PMC6952868 31934684 · DOI · Paper page
  14. Bastos M. T. Mercea D. (2019). The Brexit botnet and user-generated hyperpartisan news. Social Science Computer Review, 37, 38– 54. 10.1177/0894439317734157 · DOI
  15. Berners-Lee T. Cailliau R. Groff J.-F. Pollermann B. (1992). World-wide web: The information universe. Internet Research, 20, 461– 471. 10.1108/10662241011059471 · DOI
  16. Blackwell D. (1953). Equivalent comparisons of experiments. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 24, 265– 272. 10.1214/aoms/1177729032 · DOI
  17. Bounegru L. Gray J. Venturini T. Mauri M. (2018). A field guide to ‘fake news’ and other information disorders. SSRN 10.2139/ssrn.3097666 · DOI
  18. Boyd R. L. Pasca P. Lanning K. (2020). The personality panorama: Conceptualizing personality through big behavioural data. European Journal of Personality. Advance online publication. 10.1002/per.2254 · DOI
  19. Bozdag E. (2013). Bias in algorithmic filtering and personalization. Ethics and Information Technology, 15, 209– 227. 10.1007/s10676-013-9321-6 · DOI · Paper page
  20. Brady W. J. Gantman A. P. Van Bavel J. J. (2019). Attentional capture helps explain why moral and emotional content go viral. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149, 746– 756. 10.1037/xge0000673 31486666 · DOI · Paper page
  21. Brandimarte L. Acquisti A. Loewenstein G. (2013). Misplaced confidences: Privacy and the control paradox. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4, 340– 347. 10.1177/1948550612455931 · DOI · Paper page
  22. Brashier N. M. Schacter D. L. (2020). Aging in a fake news era. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29, 316– 323. 10.1177/0963721420915872 32968336 PMC7505057 · DOI
  23. Broers V. J. V. De Breucker C. Van den Broucke S. Luminet O. (2017). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effectiveness of nudging to increase fruit and vegetable choice. European Journal of Public Health, 27, 912– 920. 10.1093/eurpub/ckx085 28655176 · DOI
  24. Bryan G. Karlan D. Nelson S. (2010). Commitment devices. Annual Review of Economics, 2, 671– 698. 10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124324 · DOI
  25. Bucher T. Collins C. Rollo M. E. McCaffrey T. A. De Vlieger N. Van der Bend D. Truby H. Perez-Cueto F. J. A. (2016). Nudging consumers towards healthier choices: A systematic review of positional influences on food choice. British Journal of Nutrition, 115, 2252– 2263. 10.1017/S0007114516001653 27185414 · DOI · Paper page
  26. Bunz M. (2014). The silent revolution: How digitalization transforms knowledge, work, journalism and politics without making too much noise. Palgrave Macmillan.
  27. Bunzeck N. Düzel E. (2006). Absolute coding of stimulus novelty in the human substantia nigra/VTA. Neuron, 51, 369– 379. 10.1016/j.neuron.2006.06.021 16880131 · DOI · Paper page
  28. Carnap R. (1947). On the application of inductive logic. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 8, 133– 148. 10.2307/2102920 · DOI · Paper page
  29. Clowes R. W. (2013). The cognitive integration of e-memory. Review of Philosophy and Psychology, 4, 107– 133. 10.1007/s13164-013-0130-y · DOI · Paper page
  30. Compton J. (2013). Inoculation theory. In Dillard J. P. Shen L (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice (2nd ed., pp. 220– 236). SAGE.
  31. Cook L. (2001). The World Trade Center attack: The paramedic response: An insider’s view. Critical Care, 5, 301– 303. 10.1186/cc1054 11737911 PMC137373 · DOI
  32. Corbett-Davies S. Pierson E. Feller A. Goel S. Huq A. (2017). Algorithmic decision making and the cost of fairness. In KDD ’17 Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining (pp. 797– 806). Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/3097983.3098095 · DOI · Paper page
  33. Covington P. Adams J. Sargin E. (2016, 9). Deep neural networks for YouTube recommendations. In RecSys ’16 Proceedings of the 10th ACM Conference on Recommender Systems (pp. 191– 198). Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/2959100.2959190 · DOI · Paper page
  34. Craker N. March E. (2016). The dark side of Facebook®: The Dark Tetrad, negative social potency, and trolling behaviours. Personality and Individual Differences, 102, 79– 84. 10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.043 · DOI
  35. Datta A. Tschantz M. C. Datta A. (2015). Automated experiments on ad privacy settings. Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 1, 92– 112.
  36. Deibert R. J. (2019). Three painful truths about social media. Journal of Democracy, 30, 25– 39. 10.1353/jod.2019.0002 · DOI · Paper page
  37. de Laat P. B. (2018). Algorithmic decision-making based on machine learning from Big Data: Can transparency restore accountability? Philosophy & Technology, 31(4), 525– 541. 10.1007/s13347-017-0293-z 30873341 PMC6390893 · DOI · Paper page
  38. Diakopoulos N. (2015). Algorithmic accountability: Journalistic investigation of computational power structures. Digital Journalism, 3(3), 398– 415. 10.1080/21670811.2014.976411 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Diamond L. (2010). Liberation technology. Journal of Democracy, 21(3), 69– 83.
  40. Directorate-General for Communications Networks, Content and Technology. (2018). A multi-dimensional approach to disinformation: Report of the independent high level group on fake news and online disinformation. European Commission 10.2759/739290 · DOI
  41. Dommett K. Power S. (2019). The political economy of Facebook advertising: Election spending, regulation and targeting online. The Political Quarterly, 90, 257– 265. 10.1111/1467-923X.12687 · DOI
  42. Ducheneaut N. Yee N. Nickell E. Moore R. J. (2006). Building an MMO with mass appeal: A look at gameplay in World of Warcraft. Games and Culture, 1, 281– 317. 10.1177/1555412006292613 · DOI
  43. Duckworth A. L. Gendler T. S. Gross J. J. (2016). Situational strategies for self-control. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 35– 55. 10.1177/1745691615623247 26817725 PMC4736542 · DOI
  44. Duckworth A. L. Milkman K. L. Laibson D. (2018). Beyond willpower: Strategies for reducing failures of self-control. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 19, 102– 129. 10.1177/1529100618821893 30760176 · DOI
  45. Dunbar R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6, 178– 190. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<178::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-8 · DOI · Paper page
  46. Dunbar R. I. M. (2016). Do online social media cut through the constraints that limit the size of offline social networks? Royal Society Open Science, 3(1), 150292 10.1098/rsos.150292 26909163 PMC4736918 · DOI · Paper page
  47. Dunbar R. I. M. Arnaboldi V. Conti M. Passarella A. (2015). The structure of online social networks mirrors those in the offline world. Social Networks, 43, 39– 47. 10.1016/j.socnet.2015.04.005 · DOI
  48. Dworkin G. (1988). The theory and practice of autonomy. Cambridge University Press.
  49. Epstein R. Robertson R. E. (2015). The search engine manipulation effect (SEME) and its possible impact on the outcomes of elections. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 112, E4512– E4521. 10.1073/pnas.1419828112 PMC4547273 26243876 · DOI
  50. Eyal N. (2014). Hooked: How to build habit-forming products. Penguin.
  51. Fairfield J. A. Engel C. (2015). Privacy as a public good. Duke Law Journal, 65, 385– 455.
  52. Floridi L. (2014). The fourth revolution: How the infosphere is reshaping human reality. Oxford University Press.
  53. Fogg B. G. (2003). Persuasive technology: Using computers to change what we think and do. Morgan Kaufmann.
  54. Fuchs C. Hofkirchner W. Schafranek M. Raffl C. Sandoval M. Bichler R. (2010). Theoretical foundations of the web: Cognition, communication, and co-operation. Towards an understanding of Web 1.0, 2.0, 3.0. Future Internet, 2, 41– 59. 10.3390/fi2010041 · DOI
  55. Gächter S. Schulz J. F. (2016). Intrinsic honesty and the prevalence of rule violations across societies. Nature, 531, 496– 499. 10.1038/nature17160 26958830 PMC4817241 · DOI · Paper page
  56. Garcia D. (2017). Leaking privacy and shadow profiles in online social networks. Science Advances, 3(8), e1701172 10.1126/sciadv.1701172 28798961 PMC5544396 · DOI
  57. Gardiner B. (2018). “It’s a terrible way to go to work:” what 70 million readers’ comments on the Guardian revealed about hostility to women and minorities online. Feminist Media Studies, 18, 592– 608. 10.1080/14680777.2018.1447334 · DOI
  58. Garrett R. K. (2017). The “echo chamber” distraction: Disinformation campaigns are the problem, not audience fragmentation. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6(4), 370– 376. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.011 · DOI
  59. Garrett R. K. Stroud N. J. (2014). Partisan paths to exposure diversity: Differences in pro-and counterattitudinal news consumption. Journal of Communication, 64(4), 680– 701.
  60. Gazzaley A. Rosen L. D. (2016). The distracted mind: Ancient brains in a high-tech world. MIT Press.
  61. Gentzkow M. Shapiro J. M. (2011). Ideological segregation online and offline. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126, 1799– 1839. 10.1093/qje/qjr044 · DOI · Paper page
  62. Gerlach P. Teodorescu K. Hertwig R. (2019). The truth about lies: A meta-analysis on dishonest behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 145(1), 1– 44. 10.1037/bul0000174 30596431 · DOI
  63. Giddens A. (1991). Modernity and self-identity: Self and society in the late modern age. Stanford University Press.
  64. Gigerenzer G. Gaissmaier W. Kurz-Milcke E. Schwartz L. M. Woloshin S. (2007). Helping doctors and patients make sense of health statistics. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 8, 53– 96. 10.1111/j.1539-6053.2008.00033.x 26161749 · DOI · Paper page
  65. Gigerenzer G. Hertwig R. Pachur T. (Eds.). (2011). Heuristics: The foundations of adaptive behavior. Oxford University Press 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199744282.001.0001 · DOI
  66. Goldin C. Rouse C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of “blind” auditions on female musicians. The American Economic Review, 90, 715– 741. 10.1257/aer.90.4.715 · DOI
  67. Good I. J. (1967). On the principle of total evidence. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 17, 319– 321. 10.1093/bjps/17.4.319 · DOI
  68. Graham M. De Sabbata S. Zook M. A. (2015). Towards a study of information geographies: (Im)mutable augmentations and a mapping of the geographies of information. Geo: Geography and Environment, 2, 88– 105. 10.1002/geo2.8 · DOI
  69. Graves L. (2017). Anatomy of a fact check: Objective practice and the contested epistemology of fact checking. Communication, Culture & Critique, 10(3), 518– 537. 10.1111/cccr.12163 · DOI
  70. Gray C. M. Kou Y. Battles B. Hoggatt J. Toombs A. L. (2018). The dark (patterns) side of UX design. In CHI ’18 Proceedings of the 2018 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (Paper 534). Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/3173574.3174108 · DOI
  71. Green M. C. Clark J. L. (2015). Real or ersatz? Determinants of benefits and costs of online social interactions. In Sundar S. S. (Ed.), The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 247– 269). Wiley.
  72. Grinberg N. Joseph K. Friedland L. Swire-Thompson B. Lazer D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science, 363, 374– 378. 10.1126/science.aau2706 30679368 · DOI · Paper page
  73. Guess A. M. Lerner M. Lyons B. Montgomery J. M. Nyhan B. Reifler J. Sircar N. (2020). A digital media literacy intervention increases discernment between mainstream and false news in the United States and India. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 117, 15536– 15545. 10.1073/pnas.1920498117 PMC7355018 32571950 · DOI · Paper page
  74. Guess A. M. Lockett D. Lyons B. Montgomery J. M. Nyhan B. Reifler J. (2020). “Fake news” may have limited effects beyond increasing beliefs in false claims. The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(1). 10.37016/mr-2020-004 · DOI · Paper page
  75. Guess A. M. Nagler J. Tucker J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5, Article eaau4586. 10.1126/sciadv.aau4586 PMC6326755 30662946 · DOI · Paper page
  76. Guess A. M. Nyhan B. Reifler J. (2020). Exposure to untrustworthy websites in the 2016 US election. Nature Human Behavior, 4, 472– 480. 10.1038/s41562-020-0833-x PMC7239673 32123342 · DOI · Paper page
  77. Haase N. Betsch C. (2012). Parents trust other parents: Lay vaccination narratives on the Web may create doubt about vaccination safety. Medical Decision Making, 32(4), 645 10.1177/0272989X12445286 22820484 · DOI
  78. Hafenbrädl S. Waeger D. Marewski J. N. Gigerenzer G. (2016). Applied decision making with fast-and-frugal heuristics. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 5, 215– 231. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.04.011 · DOI
  79. Hagmann D. Ho E. H. Loewenstein G. (2019). Nudging out support for a carbon tax. Nature Climate Change, 9(6), 484– 489. 10.1038/s41558-019-0474-0 · DOI
  80. Harbath K. Chakrabarti S. (2019, 1 28). Expanding our efforts to protect elections in 2019 [Press release]. Facebook. https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2019/01/elections-2019/
  81. Hertwig R. (2017). When to consider boosting: Some rules for policy-makers. Behavioural Public Policy, 1, 143– 161. 10.1017/bpp.2016.14 · DOI
  82. Hertwig R. Engel C. (2016). Homo ignorans: Deliberately choosing not to know. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 359– 372. 10.1177/1745691616635594 27217249 · DOI
  83. Hertwig R. Engel C. (Eds.). (2020). Deliberate ignorance: Choosing not to know. MIT Press.
  84. Hertwig R. Grüne-Yanoff T. (2017). Nudging and boosting: Steering or empowering good decisions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12, 973– 986. 10.1177/1745691617702496 28792862 · DOI
  85. Hertwig R. Pleskac T. J. Pachur T., & The Center for Adaptive Rationality. (2019). Taming uncertainty. MIT Press.
  86. Hertwig R. Ryall M. D. (2020). Nudge versus boost: Agency dynamics under libertarian paternalism. The Economic Journal, 130, 1384– 1415. 10.1093/ej/uez054 · DOI
  87. Hinds J. Joinson A. (2019). Human and computer personality prediction from digital footprints. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 28, 204– 211. 10.1177/0963721419827849 · DOI
  88. Hinds J. Joinson A. N. (2018). What demographic attributes do our digital footprints reveal? A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 13(11), e0207112 10.1371/journal.pone.0207112 30485305 PMC6261568 · DOI
  89. Hussein E. Juneja P. Mitra T. (2020). Measuring misinformation in video search platforms: An audit study on YouTube. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 4(CSCW1), Article 48. 10.1145/3392854 · DOI
  90. Jacobs W. Amuta A. O. Jeon K. C. (2017). Health information seeking in the digital age: An analysis of health information seeking behavior among US adults. Cogent Social Sciences, 3(1), 1302785 10.1080/23311886.2017.1302785 · DOI
  91. Jamieson K. H. (2018). Cyberwar: How Russian hackers and trolls helped elect a president what we don’t, can’t, and do know. Oxford University Press.
  92. Jefferson T. (1999). Jefferson: Political writings (Appleby J. Ball T., Eds.). Cambridge University Press.
  93. Joinson A. N. (2001). Self-disclosure in computer-mediated communication: The role of self-awareness and visual anonymity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 177– 192. 10.1002/ejsp.36 · DOI · Paper page
  94. Joinson A. N. (2007). Disinhibition and the internet. In Gakenbach J. (Ed.), Psychology and the internet (pp. 75– 92). Academic Press.
  95. Jung J. Y. Mellers B. A. (2016). American attitudes toward nudges. Judgment and Decision Making, 11, 62– 74. http://journal.sjdm.org/15/15824a/jdm15824a.html
  96. Kahne J. Bowyer B. (2017). Educating for democracy in a partisan age: Confronting the challenges of motivated reasoning and misinformation. American Educational Research Journal, 54, 3– 34. 10.3102/000283121679817 · DOI
  97. Kaiser J. Rauchfleisch A. (2018, 4, 11). Unite the right? How YouTube’s recommendation algorithm connects the U.S. far-right. Medium. https://medium.com/@MediaManipulation/unite-the-right-how-youtubes-recommendation-algorithm-connects-the-u-s-far-right-9f1387ccfabd
  98. Kennedy H. Poell T. van Dijck J. (2015). Data and agency. Big Data & Society, 2(2). 10.1177/2053951715621569 · DOI
  99. Khazaeli S. Stockemer D. (2013). The internet: A new route to good governance. International Political Science Review, 34, 463– 482. 10.1177/0192512113494728 · DOI
  100. Kosinski M. Stillwell D. Graepel T. (2013). Private traits and attributes are predictable from digital records of human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 110, 5802– 5805. 10.1073/pnas.1218772110 PMC3625324 23479631 · DOI · Paper page
  101. Kozyreva A. Hertwig R. (2019). The interpretation of uncertainty in ecological rationality. Synthese. 10.1007/s11229-019-02140-w · DOI
  102. Kozyreva A. Lorenz-Spreen P. Hertwig R. Lewandowsky S. Herzog S. (2020) Public attitudes towards algorithmic personalization and use of personal data online: Evidence from Germany, Great Britain, and the US. PsyArXiv. https://psyarxiv.com/3q4mg
  103. Lapidot-Lefler N. Barak A. (2012). Effects of anonymity, invisibility, and lack of eye-contact on toxic online disinhibition. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 434– 443. 10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.014 · DOI
  104. Lau R. R. Redlawsk D. P. (2001). Advantages and disadvantages of cognitive heuristics in political decision making. American Journal of Political Science, 45, 951– 971. 10.2307/2669334 · DOI
  105. Lazer D. M. J. Baum M. A. Benkler Y. Berinsky A. J. Greenhill K. M. Menczer F. Metzger M. J. Nyhan B. Pennycook G. Rothschild D. Schudson M. Sloman S. A. Sunstein C. R. Thorson E. A. Watts D. J. Zittrain J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359, 1094– 1096. 10.1126/science.aao2998 29590025 · DOI · Paper page
  106. Le H. Maragh R. Ekdale B. High A. Havens T. Shafiq Z. (2019, 5). Measuring political personalization of Google news search. In Liu L. White R. (Eds.), WWW ‘19 The World Wide Web Conference (pp. 2957– 2963). Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/3308558.3313682 · DOI
  107. Leiser M. (2019). Regulating computational propaganda: Lessons from international law. Cambridge International Law Journal, 8(2), 218– 240. 10.4337/cilj.2019.02.03 · DOI
  108. Lerman K. Yan X. Wu X. Z. (2016). The “majority illusion” in social networks. PLOS ONE, 11(2), Article e0147617. 10.1371/journal.pone.0147617 PMC4757419 26886112 · DOI · Paper page
  109. Leviston Z. Walker I. Morwinski S. (2013). Your opinion on climate change might not be as common as you think. Nature Climate Change, 3(4), 334– 337. 10.1038/nclimate1743 · DOI
  110. Lewandowsky S. (2020a). The ‘post-truth’ world, misinformation, and information literacy: A perspective from cognitive science. In Goldstein S. (Ed.), Informed societies—Why information literacy matters for citizenship, participation and democracy (pp. 69– 88). Facet Publishing.
  111. Lewandowsky S. (2020b). Willful construction of ignorance: A tale of two ontologies. In Hertwig R. Engel C. (Eds.), Deliberate ignorance: Choosing not to know. MIT Press.
  112. Lewandowsky S. Cook J. Ecker U. K. (2017). Letting the gorilla emerge from the mist: Getting past post-truth. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 418– 424. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.11.002 · DOI
  113. Lewandowsky S. Ecker U. K. Cook J. (2017). Beyond misinformation: Understanding and coping with the “post-truth” era. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 353– 369. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.07.008 · DOI · Paper page
  114. Lewandowsky S. Jetter M. Ecker U. (2020). Using the president’s tweets to understand political diversion in the age of social media. Nature Communications, 11, Article 5764. 10.1038/s41467-020-19644-6 PMC7655817 33173060 · DOI
  115. Logan D. W. Sandal M. Gardner P. P. Manske M. Bateman A. (2010) Ten simple rules for editing Wikipedia. PLOS Computational Biology, 6(9), Article e1000941. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000941 PMC2947980 20941386 · DOI
  116. Lorenz-Spreen P. Geers M. Pachur T. Hertwig R. Lewandowsky S. Herzog S. M. (2020). A simple self-reflection intervention boosts the detection of targeted advertising. PsyArXiv. https://psyarxiv.com/ea28z
  117. Luan S. Schooler L. J. Gigerenzer G. (2011). A signal-detection analysis of fast-and-frugal trees. Psychological Review, 118, 316– 338. 10.1037/a0022684 21381858 · DOI
  118. Luca M. Malhotra D. Poliquin C. (2017). Handgun waiting periods reduce gun deaths. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 114, 12162– 12165. 10.1073/pnas.1619896114 PMC5699026 29078268 · DOI
  119. Lupia A. McCubbins M. D. (1998). The democratic dilemma. Cambridge University Press.
  120. MacCoun R. J. (2020). Blinding to remove biases in science and society. In Hertwig R. Engel C. (Eds.), Deliberate ignorance: Choosing not to know. MIT Press.
  121. Marsh E. J. Rajaram S. (2019). The digital expansion of the mind: Implications of internet usage for memory and cognition. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8, 1– 14. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2018.11.001 · DOI · Paper page
  122. Martel C. Pennycook G. Rand D. G. (2020). Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 1– 20. 10.1186/s41235-020-00252-3 33026546 PMC7539247 · DOI · Paper page
  123. Martignon L. Katsikopoulos K. V. Woike J. K. (2008). Categorization with limited resources: A family of simple heuristics. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 52, 352– 361. 10.1016/j.jmp.2008.04.003 · DOI
  124. Mathur A. Acar G. Friedman M. Lucherini E. Mayer J. Chetty M. Narayanan A. (2019). Dark patterns at scale: Findings from a Crawl of 11K shopping websites. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 3(CSCW), Article 81. 10.1145/3359183 · DOI · Paper page
  125. McCright A. M. Dunlap R. E. (2017). Combatting misinformation requires recognizing its types and the factors that facilitate its spread and resonance. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 6, 389– 396. 10.1016/j.jarmac.2017.09.005 · DOI
  126. McDowell M. Rebitschek F. G. Gigerenzer G. Wegwarth O. (2016). A simple tool for communicating the benefits and harms of health interventions: A guide for creating a fact box. MDM Policy & Practice, 1, 1– 10. 10.1177/2381468316665365 PMC6125040 30288405 · DOI
  127. McGrew S. Smith M. Breakstone J. Ortega T. Wineburg S. (2019). Improving university students’ web savvy: An intervention study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 485– 500. 10.1111/bjep.12279 30993684 · DOI · Paper page
  128. McGuire W. J. Papageorgis D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 327– 337. 10.1037/h0042026 13773992 · DOI · Paper page
  129. Metzger M. J. Flanagin A. J. (2015). Psychological approaches to credibility assessment online. In Sundar S. (Ed.), The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 445– 466). John Wiley 10.1002/9781118426456.ch20 · DOI
  130. Miller J. M. Saunders K. L. Farhart C. E. (2016). Conspiracy endorsement as motivated reasoning: The moderating roles of political knowledge and trust. American Journal of Political Science, 60, 824– 844. 10.1111/ajps.12234 · DOI
  131. Munson S. A. Lee S. Y. Resnick P. (2013). Encouraging reading of diverse political viewpoints with a browser widget. In Seventh International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media. https://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM13/paper/view/6119/6381
  132. Newell S. Marabelli M. (2015). Strategic opportunities (and challenges) of algorithmic decision-making: A call for action on the long-term societal effects of ‘datification’. The Journal of Strategic Information Systems, 24(1), 3– 14. 10.1016/j.jsis.2015.02.001 · DOI · Paper page
  133. Nguyen M. Bin Y. S. Campbell A. (2012). Comparing online and offline self-disclosure: A systematic review. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 103– 111. 10.1089/cyber.2011.0277 22032794 · DOI
  134. Norberg P. A. Horne D. R. Horne D. A. (2007). The privacy paradox: Personal information disclosure intentions versus behaviors. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 41, 100– 126. 10.1111/j.1745-6606.2006.00070.x · DOI · Paper page
  135. Nouwens M. Liccardi I. Veale M. Karger D. Kagal L. (2020). Dark patterns after the GDPR: Scraping consent pop-ups and demonstrating their influence. In CHI ’20: Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/3313831.3376321 · DOI
  136. O’Connor C. Weatherall J. O. (2019). The misinformation age: How false beliefs spread. Yale University Press.
  137. Ophir E. Nass C. Wagner A. D. (2009). Cognitive control in media multitaskers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 106, 15583– 15587. 10.1073/pnas.0903620106 PMC2747164 19706386 · DOI · Paper page
  138. Oreskes N. Conway E. M. (2011). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury Publishing.
  139. Oxman A. D. Paulsen E. J. (2019). Who can you trust? A review of free online sources of “trustworthy” information about treatment effects for patients and the public. BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making, 19(1), Article 35. 10.1186/s12911-019-0772-5 PMC6381637 30786889 · DOI
  140. Pariser E. (2011). The filter bubble: What the Internet is hiding from you. Penguin.
  141. Pasquale F. (2015). The black box society. Harvard University Press.
  142. Pennycook G. Epstein Z. Mosleh M. Arechar A. A. Eckles D. Rand D. G. (2019). Understanding and reducing the spread of misinformation online. PsyArXiv. 10.31234/osf.io/3n9u8 · DOI
  143. Pennycook G. Rand D. G. (2019b). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39– 50. 10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011 29935897 · DOI · Paper page
  144. Persily N. (2017). The 2016 US election: Can democracy survive the internet? Journal of Democracy, 28, 63– 76. 10.1353/jod.2017.0025 · DOI
  145. Plato. (1997). Phaedrus. In Cooper J. M. Hutchinson D. S. (Eds.), Plato: Complete works (pp. 506– 556). Hackett Publishing. (Original work written ca. 370 B.C.E.)
  146. Proctor R. N. Schiebinger L. (2008). Agnotology: The making and unmaking of ignorance. Stanford University Press.
  147. Rebonato R. (2012). Taking liberties: A critical examination of libertarian paternalism. Palgrave Macmillan.
  148. Reijula S. Hertwig R. (2020). Self-nudging and the citizen choice architect. Behavioural Public Policy. Advance online publication. 10.1017/bpp.2020.5 · DOI · Paper page
  149. Rheault L. Rayment E. Musulan A. (2019). Politicians in the line of fire: Incivility and the treatment of women on social media. Research & Politics, 6(1). 10.1177/2053168018816228 · DOI
  150. Rogers T. Milkman K. L. Volpp K. G. (2014). Commitment devices: Using initiatives to change behavior. JAMA, 311, 2065– 2066. 10.1001/jama.2014.3485 24777472 · DOI · Paper page
  151. Rojecki A. Meraz S. (2016). Rumors and factitious informational blends: The role of the web in speculative politics. New Media & Society, 18, 25– 43. 10.1177/1461444814535724 · DOI
  152. Roozenbeek J. van der Linden S. (2018). The fake news game: Actively inoculating against the risk of misinformation. Journal of Risk Research, 22, 570– 580. 10.1080/13669877.2018.1443491 · DOI
  153. Roozenbeek J. van der Linden S. (2019). Fake news game confers psychological resistance against online misinformation. Palgrave Communications, 5, Article 65. 10.1057/s41599-019-0279-9 · DOI · Paper page
  154. Rosen L. D. Carrier L. M. Cheever N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29, 948– 958. 10.1016/j.chb.2012.12.001 · DOI · Paper page
  155. Ross L. Greene D. House P. (1977). The “false consensus effect”: An egocentric bias in social perception and attribution processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279– 301. 10.1016/0022-1031(77)90049-X · DOI · Paper page
  156. Schäfer S. (2020). Illusion of knowledge through Facebook news? Effects of snack news in a news feed on perceived knowledge, attitude strength, and willingness for discussions. Computers in Human Behavior, 103, 1– 12. 10.1016/j.chb.2019.08.031 · DOI
  157. Schelling T. C. (1978). Egonomics, or the art of self-management. The American Economic Review, 68, 290– 294.
  158. Schmidt A. L. Zollo F. Del Vicario M. Bessi A. Scala A. Caldarelli G. Stanley H. E. Quattrociocchi W. (2017). Anatomy of news consumption on Facebook. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 114, 3035– 3039. 10.1073/pnas.1617052114 PMC5373354 28265082 · DOI · Paper page
  159. Sherman L. E. Hernandez L. M. Greenfield P. M. Dapretto M. (2018). What the brain ‘Likes’: Neural correlates of providing feedback on social media. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 13, 699– 707. 10.1093/scan/nsy051 29982823 PMC6121147 · DOI
  160. Sherman L. E. Payton A. A. Hernandez L. M. Greenfield P. M. Dapretto M. (2016). The power of the like in adolescence: Effects of peer influence on neural and behavioral responses to social media. Psychological Science, 27, 1027– 1035. 10.1177/0956797616645673 27247125 PMC5387999 · DOI · Paper page
  161. Shin J. Thorson K. (2017). Partisan selective sharing: The biased diffusion of fact-checking messages on social media. Journal of Communication, 67, 233– 255. 10.1111/jcom.12284 · DOI · Paper page
  162. Simon H. A. (1971). Designing organizations for an information-rich world. In Greenberger M. (Ed.), Computers, communications, and the public interest (pp. 37– 72). John Hopkins University Press.
  163. Soroka S. Fournier P. Nir L. (2019). Cross-national evidence of a negativity bias in psychophysiological reactions to news. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 116, 18888– 18892. 10.1073/pnas.1908369116 PMC6754543 31481621 · DOI · Paper page
  164. Sparks J. R. Katz I. R. Beile P. M. (2016). Assessing digital information literacy in higher education: A review of existing frameworks and assessments with recommendations for next-generation assessment. ETS Research Report Series, 2016(2), 1– 33. 10.1002/ets2.12118 · DOI
  165. Specter M. (2009). Denialism: How irrational thinking hinders scientific progress, harms the planet, and threatens our lives. Penguin.
  166. Spitzer M. (2012). Digitale Demenz [ Digital dementia]. Nervenheilkunde, 31(7–8), 493– 497.
  167. Stothart C. Mitchum A. Yehnert C. (2015). The attentional cost of receiving a cell phone notification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 41, 893– 897. 10.1037/xhp0000100 26121498 · DOI
  168. Sunstein C. R. (2015). The ethics of nudging. Yale Journal on Regulation, 32, 413– 450.
  169. Sunstein C. R. (2016b). People prefer system 2 nudges (kind of). Duke Law Journal, 66, 121– 168.
  170. Sunstein C. R. (2017). #Republic: Divided democracy in the age of social media. Princeton University Press.
  171. Susser D. Roessler B. Nissenbaum H. (2019). Online manipulation: Hidden influences in a digital world. Georgetown Law Technology Review, 4, 1– 45.
  172. Thaler R. H. (2018). Nudge, not sludge. Science, 361(6401), 431 10.1126/science.aau9241 30072515 · DOI
  173. Thaler R. H. Benartzi S. (2004). Save more tomorrow™: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving. Journal of Political Economy, 112(Suppl. 1), 164–S187. 10.1086/380085 · DOI
  174. Thaler R. H. Sunstein C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Yale University Press.
  175. Thomas R. J. Tandoc E. C. Jr. Hinnant A. (2017). False balance in public health reporting? Michele Bachmann, the HPV vaccine, and “mental retardation. ” Health Communication, 32(2), 152– 160. 10.1080/10410236.2015.1110006 27192091 · DOI
  176. Thorens G. Wullschleger A. Khan R. Achab S. Zullino D. F. (2012). What is addictive in Internet? The Open Addiction Journal, 5(Suppl. 1), 14– 19.
  177. Tidwell L. C. Walther J. B. (2002). Computer-mediated communication effects on disclosure, impressions, and interpersonal evaluations: Getting to know one another a bit at a time. Human Communication Research, 28(3), 317– 348. 10.1111/j.1468-2958.2002.tb00811.x · DOI · Paper page
  178. Tufekci Z. (2015). Algorithmic harms beyond Facebook and Google: Emergent challenges of computational agency. Colorado Technology Law Journal, 13, 203– 218.
  179. Uberti D. (2016, 12 15). The real history of fake news. Columbia Journalism Review. https://www.cjr.org/special_report/fake_news_history.php
  180. Uncapher M. R. Wagner A. D. (2018). Minds and brains of media multitaskers: Current findings and future directions. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 115, 9889– 9896. 10.1073/pnas.1611612115 PMC6176627 30275312 · DOI · Paper page
  181. Utz C. Degeling M. Fahl S. Schaub F. Holz T. (2019). (Un) informed consent: Studying GDPR consent notices in the field. In CCS ’19: Proceedings of the 2019 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (pp. 973– 990). Association for Computing Machinery 10.1145/3319535.3354212 · DOI
  182. van der Linden S. Maibach E. Cook J. Leiserowitz A. Lewandowsky S. (2017). Inoculating against misinformation. Science, 358, 1141– 1142. 10.1126/science.aar4533 29191898 · DOI
  183. van der Linden S. Panagopoulos C. Azevedo F. Jost J. T. (2020). The paranoid style in American politics revisited: An ideological asymmetry in conspiratorial thinking. Political Psychology. Advance online publication. 10.1111/pops.12681 · DOI
  184. Vargo C. J. Guo L. Amazeen M. A. (2018). The agenda-setting power of fake news: A big data analysis of the online media landscape from 2014 to 2016. New Media & Society, 20, 2028– 2049. 10.1177/1461444817712086 · DOI
  185. Voosen P. (2017). The AI detectives. Science, 357, 22– 27. 10.1126/science.357.6346.22 28684483 · DOI
  186. Vosoughi S. Mohsenvand M. N. Roy D. (2017). Rumor gauge: Predicting the veracity of rumors on Twitter. ACM Transactions on Knowledge Discovery from Data, 11(4), Article 50. 10.1145/3070644 · DOI
  187. Walther J. B. Loh T. Granka L. (2005). Let me count the ways: The interchange of verbal and nonverbal cues in computer-mediated and face-to-face affinity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 24, 36– 65. 10.1177/0261927X04273036 · DOI
  188. Walther J. B. Van Der Heide B. Ramirez A. Burgoon J. K. Peña J. (2015). Interpersonal and hyperpersonal dimensions of computer-mediated communication. In Sundar S. (Ed.), The handbook of the psychology of communication technology (pp. 3– 22). Wiley 10.1002/9781118426456.ch1. · DOI
  189. Weeks B. E. Holbert R. L. (2013). Predicting dissemination of news content in social media: A focus on reception, friending, and partisanship. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 90(2), 212– 232. 10.1177/1077699013482906 · DOI
  190. Weiser M. (1991). The computer for the 21st century. Scientific American, 265(3), 94– 105.
  191. Wiradhany W. Nieuwenstein M. R. (2017). Cognitive control in media multitaskers: Two replication studies and a meta-analysis. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79, 2620– 2641. 10.3758/s13414-017-1408-4 PMC5662702 28840547 · DOI · Paper page
  192. Young I. M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. Oxford University Press.
  193. Yousif S. R. Aboody R. Keil F. C. (2019). The illusion of consensus: A failure to distinguish between true and false consensus. Psychological Science, 30, 1195– 1204. 10.1177/0956797619856844 31291546 · DOI
  194. Youyou W. Kosinski M. Stillwell D. (2015). Computer-based personality judgments are more accurate than those made by humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 112, 1036– 1040. 10.1073/pnas.1418680112 PMC4313801 25583507 · DOI · Paper page
  195. Zarsky T. (2016). The trouble with algorithmic decisions: An analytic road map to examine efficiency and fairness in automated and opaque decision making. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 41, 118– 132. 10.1177/0162243915605575 · DOI · Paper page
  196. Zerback T. Töpfl F. Knöpfle M. (2020). The disconcerting potential of online disinformation: Persuasive effects of astroturfing comments and three strategies for inoculation against them. New Media & Society. 10.1177/1461444820908530 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Kozyreva, A., Lewandowsky, S., & Hertwig, R.
Affiliations
  • Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
  • The University of Western Australia (AU)
Corresponding author
Kozyreva, Anastasia
ORCID
Venue
Psychological Science in the Public Interest
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2020-12
Volume
21
Issue
3
Pages
103-156
ISSN
  • 1539-6053 (ISSN-L)
  • 1529-1006
DOI
10.1177/1529100620946707
PMC
PMC7745618
OpenAlex
W3003606046
Cited by
479
References
48
Citations by year
2026: 76 · 2025: 90 · 2024: 94 · 2023: 110 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2
FWCI
49.84
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Gothic.net (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
  • PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Digital Media and Philosophy
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
Keywords
choice architecture, nudging, boosts, information literacy, disinformation, online incivility, political extremism, distraction, deliberate ignorance, inoculation, decision aids, human autonomy, online discourse, behavioral interventions
MeSH terms
Attention, Choice Behavior, Cognition, Decision Making, Decision Support Techniques, Humans, Internet, Information Dissemination

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review