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Cited by 13Diverse Music Education InsightsMusic Education and AnalysisArt Education and Development

Understanding Participation in Secondary Music Classes: A Literature Review

Open access
Pendergast, Seth·2020·Update: Applications of Research in Music Education
DOI 10.1177/8755123320928479
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Abstract

Sustaining and increasing participation in secondary music classes has been a regular topic of discourse within the field of music education. Music researchers and professionals have recently addressed specific issues related to music participation such as access to music classes, policy initiatives, and student interest in the music curriculum. This review of literature is an exploration of student enrollment trends in secondary music classes and a broad examination of the many factors that influence student enrollment decisions. In this review of literature, I frame music participation as a complex issue where multiple factors influence enrollment in secondary music classes. Next, research on the structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal factors that affect music participation are presented. Finally, I address how music teachers and advocacy leaders might direct their efforts to support and increase music participation.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This literature review synthesizes empirical research published since 2000 on why secondary students do or do not enroll in school music classes, organizing findings into structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal factors using Hawkinson's (2015) Model of School Music Constraints. It concludes that participation is a complex "problem space" requiring multifaceted, context-specific responses from teachers, administrators, and advocacy leaders rather than one-size-fits-all solutions.

Key findings

  • Overall participation is stable but partial: Elpus (2014) found high school students enrolled in music at an average rate of 34% from 1982 to 2009, with the number continuing in high school music increasing, yet only about 34% of secondary students participate (Shuler, 2011; Williams, 2011).
  • Access is structurally unequal: Elpus (2017) reported charter high schools were "89% less likely than non-charter [high] schools to offer music courses," and 59% of public high schools in the Western United States offered music versus 85% in the Midwest. Parsad and Spiegelman (2012) found 96% of schools with the lowest poverty concentration offered at least one music course versus 81% of the highest-poverty schools, with access increasing in low-poverty and decreasing in high-poverty schools between 2000 and 2009.
  • Marginalized groups are underrepresented: students of color, low-SES students, and low-achieving students are less likely to participate, especially in band and orchestra; 45% of Black students, 45% of Hispanic students, and 36% of Native American students attend high-poverty schools versus 8% of White students (McFarland et al., 2019).
  • Interpersonal and intrapersonal factors matter: parent and peer support, teacher relationships, self-efficacy, attitudes, and perceived costs (loss of valued alternatives, psychological, effort-related, effort-unrelated) all shape enrollment; Alegrado and Winsler (2020) found students who were English Language Proficient by fifth grade had three times greater odds of music participation than those who were not.

Methods

  • Design: a literature review (narrative synthesis) of empirical studies—research articles and dissertations—published since 2000 that specifically addressed factors related to student enrollment in secondary music classes (Grades 6–12), including all types of music classes though typically large ensembles.
  • Data: studies sourced from academic databases, plus additional studies deemed critical from reference sections (even beyond inclusion criteria) and research outside music education providing theoretical support; findings were synthesized into Hawkinson's (2015) three categories (structural, interpersonal, intrapersonal).
  • Analysis: thematic synthesis of findings with implications drawn for teachers, administrators, academicians, and advocacy leaders; no primary data collection or meta-analytic statistics reported.

Limitations

  • The paper states no formal limitations section; the author acknowledges that secondary music participation is a "complex and multifarious problem" and that factors likely vary by school setting (size, type, socioeconomics, community culture), so few one-size-fits-all solutions exist.
  • Evident from the text: the review is narrative rather than systematic—no explicit search protocol, databases, date of search, or inclusion/exclusion counts are reported, and the author notes some sources were included beyond the stated criteria at the reviewer's discretion.
  • Evident from the text: the evidence base is heavily U.S.-focused and draws on secondary citations of national datasets (e.g., HSLS 2009, NCES reports), so findings may not generalize to other national contexts; several cited works are dissertations or in-press studies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/8755123320928479

Cites

75 of 75 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

21 of 164 cited sources checked · 11 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Secondary students likely experience real and perceived constraints to music participation in three areas: structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

    “Hawkinson (2015) showed that secondary students likely experience real and perceived constraints to music participation in three areas: (a) structural, (b) interpersonal, and (c) intrapersonal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015
  • Premisecitation

    Students not enrolled in a music program explained they are reluctant to participate in music classes because involvement felt abnormal for their circle of friends.

    “students not enrolled in a music program explained they are reluctant to participate in music classes because involvement felt abnormal for their circle of friends”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015

      The ‘Contexts That Facilitate Participation’ section (page unavailable) says peer relationships can inhibit music participation and reports that some nonparticipants cited friends’ nonparticipation. It does not establish the more specific claim that students not enrolled in music classes explained their reluctance by saying participation felt abnormal within their circle of friends. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Students with positive views of their music abilities are more inclined to enroll in a school music program.

    “Students with positive views of their music abilities are more inclined to enroll in a school music program (Demorest et al., 2017;Fiedler & Spychiger, 2017;Hawkinson, 2015;Pendergast, 2018;Siebenaler, 2006).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Demorest et al., 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Fiedler & Spychiger, 2017 source
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015
  • Premisecitation

    Students who perceive support for music instruction from their parents are more likely to participate in school-based music classes.

    “students who perceive support for music instruction from their parents are more likely to participate in school-based music classes”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites McPherson, 2009

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ng & Hartwig, 2011 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) identifies parental support as important for continued music participation, particularly instrumental music. But the study reports teachers’ perceptions, not students’ perceived parental support, and its classroom-music model identifies program quality—not parental support—as the significant predictor. It therefore does not establish the claimed relationship for participation in school-based music classes. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Ruybalid, 2016

      The Additional information section (page not supplied) reports that students’ perceptions of their parents’ attitudes significantly predicted their intentions to continue in school music when entering middle or junior high school. The claim instead describes actual participation in school-based music classes, which this finding does not establish. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Students are more likely to enroll in music classes when their current music teacher fosters classroom environments where students feel connected to each other, offers students a voice in the direction of the class, and develops student musicianship so that students feel competent and confident in their musical progress.

    “students are more likely to enroll in music classes when their current music teacher (a) fosters classroom environments where students feel connected to each other, (b) offers students a voice in the direction of the class, and (c) develops student musicianship so that students feel competent and confident in their musical progress”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Evans & Liu, 2018 source

      The Role of Psychological Needs Satisfaction reports that autonomy, competence, and relatedness satisfaction predicted high school orchestra students’ intentions to continue participating. Implications for Educators describes ways teachers might support those needs. The study measured intentions rather than actual enrollment, and its autonomy recommendation concerns students’ choice to remain in the ensemble, not giving them a voice in the direction of the class. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Freer & Evans, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some students experience unrestricted entry into secondary music programs, whereas other students must negotiate constraints to their participation, sometimes encountering complete barriers.

    “some students experience unrestricted entry into secondary music programs, whereas other students must negotiate constraints to their participation, sometimes encountering complete barriers to participation that are difficult to overcome.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    When music teachers foster an environment in which students are growing musically and have a sense of belonging, students may form peer-bonds that sustain involvement in the music program over time.

    “when music teachers foster an environment in which students are growing musically and have a sense of belonging, students may form peer-bonds that sustain involvement in the music program over time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Patrick et al., 1999 source

      The Summary (page not available in our copy) says satisfying peer relationships within talent activities bolstered adolescents’ enjoyment and commitment; it specifically includes band, orchestra, and choir among activities where participants formed close bonds. The paper does not establish that music teachers fostered those relationships by creating an environment of musical growth and belonging. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Rawlings & Stoddard, 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Close peer social networks have been found to sustain involvement in the arts, expand students' social networks, and increase enjoyment in arts participation.

    “Close peer social networks have been found to sustain involvement in the arts, expand students' social networks, and increase enjoyment in arts participation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Patrick et al., 1999 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The review synthesized research studies into Hawkinson's three music participation categories: structural, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.

    “I synthesized the research studies into Hawkinson's (2015) three music participation categories (i.e., structural factors, interpersonal factors, and intrapersonal factors)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Students might consider the financial burden, time commitment, and difficulty of the music class.

    “In this category, students might consider the financial burden, time commitment, and difficulty of the music class (Hawkinson, 2015;Pendergast & Robinson, in press).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015
    • cites Pendergast & Robinson, in press

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Student perceptions and peer groups have an influence on music class enrollment.

    “Student perceptions and peer groups also have an influence on music class enrollment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hawkinson, 2015
    • cites Patrick et al., 1999 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that peers appeared to support adolescents’ continued involvement in talent activities, including music, and the Introduction links adolescents’ self-perceptions to activity involvement. The paper examines continuing participation, not music class enrollment specifically, so it does not establish the claimed influence on enrollment. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Siebenaler, 2006

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schools with the lowest poverty concentration increased access to school music classes between 2000 and 2009, while schools with the highest poverty concentration decreased access during the same period.

    “schools with the lowest poverty concentration increased access to school music classes between the years 2000 and 2009, while schools with the highest poverty concentration decreased access to school music classes during the same period”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parsad & Spiegelman, 2012

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, students with low academic achievement, and students of color are underrepresented in secondary school music ensembles, especially band and orchestra classes.

    “students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, students with low academic achievement, and students of color are underrepresented in secondary school music ensembles, especially band and orchestra classes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elpus & Abril, 2011, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Larger and traditional public high schools are more likely to offer music classes than small, private, and charter high schools.

    “larger schools are more likely to offer at least one music course when compared with small schools”
    • Also stated in: § Access to Secondary Music Classes · plain
      “traditional public high schools have the greatest likelihood of offering music instruction when compared to private and charter schools”
    • Also stated in: § Implications and Recommendations · plain
      “traditional and large public high schools were significantly more likely to offer music classes than small high schools and charter high schools”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elpus, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Detroit schools offered less music instruction in schools where the majority of the population were students of color, while Washington, D.C., schools did not have the same disparities.

    “Detroit schools offered less music instruction in schools where the majority of the population were students of color, while Washington, D.C., schools did not have the same disparities”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Salvador & Allegood, 2014 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Music educators agree that issues of representation and participation in school music programs are an important topic of concern, but may characterize the problems, causes, and solutions differently.

    “Music educators agree these issues are an important topic of concern but may characterize the problems, causes, and solutions in different manners”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Miksza, 2013b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Williams, 2011 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    59% of public high schools in the Western United States offered music courses compared with 85% of public high schools in the Midwest.

    “59% of public high schools in the Western United States offered music courses compared with 85% of the public high schools in the Midwest”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elpus, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The reduction in access to music courses in low-SES schools particularly affects students of color because they are overrepresented in low-SES schools.

    “The reduction in access to music courses in low-SES schools particularly affects students of color because they are overrepresented in low-SES schools”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McFarland et al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Parsad & Spiegelman, 2012

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    45% of Black students, 45% of Hispanic students, and 36% of Native American students attend high-poverty schools, whereas only 8% of White students attend high-poverty schools.

    “45% of Black students, 45% of Hispanic students, and 36% of Native American students attend high-poverty schools, whereas only 8% of White students attend high-poverty schools”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McFarland et. al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Compared with secondary schools in suburban areas, rural area schools are more likely to be small, urban area schools are more likely to be charter, and both urban and rural schools are more likely to serve low-SES students and/or students of color.

    “Compared with secondary schools in suburban areas, rural area schools are more likely to be small, urban area schools are more likely to be charter, and both urban and rural schools are more likely to serve low-SES students and/or students of color”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites McFarland et al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Showalter et. al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Comprehensive explanations for the findings on academic performance and English language proficiency have yet to be sufficiently explained.

    “While comprehensive explanations for these findings have yet to be sufficiently explained”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Elpus, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such views may further limit access to music programs for marginalized students.

    “Such views may further limit access to music programs for marginalized students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The school music program may be, in essence, a closed-system only open to students that match a particular social or cultural identity.

    “The school music program may be, in essence, a closed-system only open to students that match a particular social or cultural identity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Allsup, 2007 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Scholars have highlighted other preferred interactions with music such as popular music groups or lessons, DJ/music production, perform/compose to share online, perform in large bands, choirs, and orchestras, and songwriting.

    “In addition to listening activities, scholars have highlighted other preferred interactions with music such as popular music groups or lessons (Miell & Littleton, 2008), DJ/music production (Rambarran, 2017), perform/compose to share online (Cayari, 2017), perform in large bands, choirs, and orchestras (Elpus & Abril, 2019), and songwriting (Tobias, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Miell & Littleton, 2008 source
    • cites Rambarran, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Cayari, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Parents may support or discourage their child's music participation in ways such as assisting with practice time, encouraging music progress, providing interesting enrichment experiences, offering autonomy in the pursuit of music interests, and discussing their child's music interests.

    “Parents may support or discourage their child's music participation in a number of ways such as assisting with practice time, encouraging music progress, providing interesting enrichment experiences, offering autonomy in the pursuit of music interests, and discussing their child's music interests”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Creech, 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rural schools tend to have fewer resources, fewer staff, and less diverse course offerings when compared with larger suburban public schools.

    “rural schools tend to have fewer resources, fewer staff, and less diverse course offerings when compared with larger suburban public schools”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Elpus, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites McFarland et al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Showalter et. al, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review limited inclusion to empirical studies published since 2000 that specifically addressed factors related to student enrollment in secondary music classes.

    “I limited the scope of my investigation to empirical studies (i.e., research articles and dissertations) published since 2000 that specifically addressed factors related to student enrollment in secondary music classes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents' positive attitudes seem to be directed toward music listening, with most adolescents listening to music regularly.

    “For instance, adolescents' positive attitudes seem to be directed toward music listening, with most adolescents listening to music regularly (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013;Pendergast, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013 source
    • cites Pendergast, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Schools with higher SES status not only provide more resources to their music teachers but also offer a wider array of music classes to students compared with lower SES schools.

    “schools with higher SES status not only provide more resources (e.g., curriculum and training) to their music teachers but also offer a wider array of music classes to students when compared with lower SES schools”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parsad & Spiegelman, 2012

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Friendship groups have an overall influence on motivation in school, students' attitudes toward school, and their personal identities.

    “friendship groups have an overall influence on motivation in school, students' attitudes toward school, and their personal identities”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kindermann, 2007 source
    • cites Ryan, 2001 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Access to school music classes, interpersonal relationships, and social norms influence school music participation.

    “Access to school music classes, interpersonal relationships, and social norms influence school music participation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-efficacy belief motivates individuals to become involved in an activity, engage deeply, and persist when the task becomes difficult.

    “This belief motivates individuals to become involved in an activity, engage deeply, and persist when the task becomes difficult (Bandura, 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bandura, 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall, it is possible that the focus of some students' attitudes may or may not align with the topics or manners of music making represented by their school music program.

    “Overall, it is possible that the focus of some students' attitudes may or may not align with the topics or manners of music making represented by their school music program.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Music topics may further delineate the focus of the activity and thereby student attitudes.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There is evidence to suggest that the quality or equity of access to school music classes varies between schools.

    “there is evidence to suggest that the quality or equity of access varies between schools”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low-SES schools and schools with high proportions of students of color tend to have less music course diversity, fewer curricular resources, fewer financial resources, and unique challenges such as transportation costs and music teacher recruitment.

    “Low-SES schools and schools with high proportions of students of color also tend to have less music course diversity, fewer curricular resources, fewer financial resources, and unique challenges such as transportation costs and music teacher recruitment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Costa-Giomi & Chappell, 2007
    • cites Elpus & Grisé, 2019 source
    • cites Parsad & Spiegelman, 2012

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Psychological costs include a variety of negative psychological states such as anxiety, social pressure, and embarrassment.

    “Psychological costs include a variety of negative psychological states such as anxiety, social pressure, and embarrassment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barron & Hulleman, 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If a music teacher lacks a reputation for musical excellence, has difficulty forming positive relationships with students, or rarely offers students opportunities to help determine the direction of the music program, students are less likely to enroll.

    “If a music teacher lacks a reputation for musical excellence (competence), has difficulty forming positive relationships with students (relatedness), or rarely offers students opportunities to help determine the direction of the music program (autonomy), students are less likely to enroll.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some students believe an individual's music abilities can be developed through effort, while others believe music ability is based on inherent talent.

    “Some students believe an individual's music abilities can be developed through effort, while others believe music ability is based on inherent talent (Dweck, 2006;Legette, 1998).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dweck, 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Legette, 1998 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The opportunity gap represents differences between children of wealthy parents and children of poor parents that extend beyond financial resources.

    “The opportunity gap represents differences between children of wealthy parents and children of poor parents that extend beyond financial resources”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gorski, 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It is possible that with strong elementary school experiences in music and specific reminders of music potential at the secondary level, students who otherwise might not have joined a music class may enroll.

    “It is possible that with strong elementary school experiences in music and specific reminders of music potential at the secondary level, students who otherwise might not have joined a music class may enroll.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Supporting secondary music participation requires a multifaceted approach because it is a complex issue.

    “Supporting secondary music participation requires a multifaceted approach because it is a complex issue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The collective efforts of numerous parties working on a variety of solutions within their sphere of influence may ultimately pave the way for equitable, sustained, and growing participation in school music classes.

    “The collective efforts of numerous parties working on a variety of solutions within their sphere of influence may ultimately pave the way for equitable, sustained, and growing participation in school music classes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These experiences may support students' music self-efficacy because students have the opportunity to gain a clearer understanding of their current music strengths and weaknesses and demonstrate a clear path for strengthening their music abilities.

    “These experiences may support students' music self-efficacy because students have the opportunity to gain a clearer understanding of their current music strengths and weaknesses and demonstrate a clear path for strengthening their music abilities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Student views concerning the improvement of their music abilities may influence their self-efficacy beliefs.
38 of 38

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Secondary music participation is a complex and multifarious problem.

    “Secondary music participation is a complex and multifarious problem.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Social groups carry presumptions of what is acceptable for people in a group.

    “Often, social groups carry presumptions of what is acceptable for people in a group.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parents, peers, and music teachers have a unique influence on the social identity, music perceptions, and development of young people.

    “Parents, peers, and music teachers have a unique influence on the social identity, music perceptions, and development of young people.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A student's social identity plays an important role in whether they participate in a school music program.

    “A student's social identity (shared identity with others) plays an important role in whether they participate in a school music program.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Both broad social norms and personal social norms have an influence on participation in school music programs.

    “Both broad social norms (e.g., ethnicity, gender, and cultural norms) and personal social norms (e.g., family and friendship groups) seem to have an influence on participation in school music programs.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Peer influence is an influence on participation in secondary music classes.

    “Peer influence is often cited as an influence on participation in secondary music classes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Access to school-based music classes is the first constraint students negotiate before enrolling in a secondary music class.

    “Access to school-based music classes is perhaps the first constraint students negotiate before enrolling in a secondary music class.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Music teachers play a crucial role in building bridges to administrators and parents.

    “Music teachers likely play a crucial role in building bridges to administrators and parents.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Music topics may further delineate the focus of the activity and thereby student attitudes.

    “Finally, music topics may further delineate the focus of the activity and, thereby, student attitudes (e.g., genres, styles, instrumentation, and religion).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Every school is unique.

    “Undoubtedly, every school is unique.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Student views concerning the improvement of their music abilities may influence their self-efficacy beliefs.

    “Finally, student views concerning the improvement of their music abilities may also influence their self-efficacy beliefs.”
11 of 11

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Two different handbook chapters have identical page ranges

    Minor

    The references assign pages 223-240 of the same handbook to two different chapters. Both chapters cannot occupy that entire page range.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Costa-Giomi E., 2007, Journal of Band Research, 42, 1
  2. Pendergast S., 2018, A latent profile analysis of secondary students’ music participation in three Salt Lake City schools: An exploratory study
  3. Rambarran S., 2017, The Oxford handbook of music making and leisure, 223

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Authors
Pendergast, S.
Affiliations
Colorado State University (US)
Corresponding author
Pendergast, Seth
ORCID
Pendergast, Seth
Venue
Update: Applications of Research in Music Education
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2020-05-28
Volume
39
Issue
1
Pages
38-49
ISSN
  • 1945-0109 (ISSN-L)
  • 8755-1233
DOI
10.1177/8755123320928479
OpenAlex
W3031408359
Semantic Scholar
2a68961e9604187bb013c5a72de9a7ba7f80decc
Cited by
13
References
72
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3
FWCI
11.04
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
Update Applications of Research in Music Education (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Music › Diverse Music Education Insights
  • Social Sciences › Education › Music Education and Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Visual Arts and Performing Arts › Art Education and Development
Keywords
music participation, student enrollment decisions, access to music education, music education policy, structural factors, interpersonal factors, intrapersonal factors, music teachers

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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