Does Working Memory Training Transfer? A Meta-Analysis Including Training Conditions as Moderators
Abstract
A meta-analysis was undertaken to reexamine near- and far-transfer effects following working-memory training and to consider potential moderators more systematically. Forty-seven studies with 65 group comparisons were included in the meta-analysis. Results showed near-transfer effects to short-term and working-memory skills that were sustained at follow-up with effect sizes ranging from g = 0.37 to g = 0.72 for immediate transfer and g = 0.22 to g = 0.78 for long-term transfer. Far-transfer effects to other cognitive skills were small, limited to nonverbal (g = 0.14) and verbal (g = 0.16) ability and not sustained at follow-up. Several moderators (e.g., duration of training sessions, supervision during training) had an influence on transfer effects, including far-transfer effects. We present principles for how best to improve working memory through training in the narrow-task paradigm and conjecture how best to improve basic cognitive functions in complex activity contexts.
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This review contains a much larger set of studies than Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) and Schwaighofer et al. (2015).
“In contrast to Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) and Schwaighofer et al. (2015), we have a considerably larger sample of studies.”
From Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer” (2016) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al. (2015)
This review will provide finer-grained analysis of working memory measures and publication bias than prior reviews.
“Further, in comparison to Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) and Schwaighofer et al. (2015), we will also provide a more fine-grained analysis of working memory measures and publication bias.”
From Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer” (2016) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al. (2015)
Working memory training impacts the ability to perform the trained tasks and, to a lesser degree, near-transfer tasks.
“Four comprehensive meta-analyses (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013;Melby-Lervåg, Redick, & Hulme, 2016;Schwaighofer, Fischer, & Buhner, 2015;Weicker, Villringer, & Thöne-Otto, 2016) have found that WM training impacts on the ability to perform the trained tasks and, to a lesser degree, tasks similar to the trained tasks (i.e., near transfer).”
From Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer, Fischer, & Buhner, 2015
There is disagreement between previous meta-analyses, particularly regarding the size of near transfer effects.
“As is evident from the short review above, there is some disagreement between the previous meta-analyses, particularly regarding the size of the near transfer effects.”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
Simple span tasks were considered WM measures in Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013), whereas other meta-analyses coded them as STM or excluded them.
“Also, simple span tasks, such as the digit span, were considered WM measures in the Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) study, whereas the other meta-analyses coded simple spans as measures of short-term memory (STM; Schwaighofer et al., 2015;Weicker et al., 2016) or excluded them completely from the analyses (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
Schwaighofer et al. (2015) did not include the n-back task in near transfer measures due to validity issues.
“For example, unlike the other meta-analyses, Schwaighofer et al. (2015) did not include the n-back task in the near transfer measures due to validity issues with this task.”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
Previous meta-analytic near transfer measures have lumped together untrained WM tasks that differ from training tasks only by stimuli and WM tasks structurally different from training tasks.
“Third, meta-analytic near transfer measures have lumped together untrained WM tasks that differ from the training tasks only by their stimuli and WM tasks that are structurally different from the training tasks”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
This finding is in line with previous meta-analyses.
“On the whole, this is in line with the previous meta-analyses (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013;Schwaighofer et al., 2015;Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
From Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies (2017) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
Meta-analyses averaging effects of training on WM tasks with varying similarity have reported significant near transfer effects.
“Meta-analyses averaging effects of training on WM tasks with varying similarity have reported significant near transfer effects, e.g., [13, 14].”
From Adaptive working memory training does not produce transfer effects in cognition and neuroimaging (2022) · cites this paper as [14]
Despite studies showing positive results after training in young adults, its effectiveness is still controversial and far transfer effects are not always obtained.
“despite the studies showing positive results after training in young adults, its effectiveness is still controversial and far transfer effects are not always obtained (Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Schwaighofer et al., 2015
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Flagged first, then by citations
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Sorted by citations
Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616635612 · Cited by 910 · see citing works
“These findings of small immediate effects with no reliable effects at follow-up have also been replicated by Schwaighofer, Fischer, and Buhner (2015).”
The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training
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“On the whole, this is in line with the previous meta-analyses (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
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“Although plenty of studies have found near transfer effects after training WM, IC, or attention, far transfer effects are still limited and inconclusive (Thorell et al., 2009; Spierer et al., 2013; Sprenger et al., 2013; Enge et al., 2014; Schwaighofer et al., 2015; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
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“Despite numerous meta-analyses aimed to understand the effectiveness of N-back training (Au et al. 2015; Soveri et al. 2017a, b; Melby-Lervåg and Hulme 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al. 2016; Schwaighofer et al. 2015), there is still disagreement about the extent of transfer after N-back training.”
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Individual Differences and Motivational Effects
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Multisensory Facilitation of Working Memory Training
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Examining Working Memory Training for Healthy Adults—A Second-Order Meta-Analysis
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“The studies have aimed to elucidate the efficacy of different training meth-ods in improving working memory performance (C á sedas et al. 2020; Soveri et al. 2017; Schwaighofer et al. 2015).”
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The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
“…both span-and updating-based training, often reported weaker or null far-transfer effects (e.g., Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2020; Schwaighofer et al., 2015), whereas meta-analyses focusing specifically on updating/n-back training more often observed reliable, albeit small,…”
- Authors
- Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M.
- Affiliations
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schwaighofer, Matthias
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2015-04-03
- Volume
- 50
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 138-166
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1530148022
- Cited by
- 332
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 34 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 3
- FWCI
- 3.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- working memory training, transfer of training, near transfer, far transfer, training duration, training supervision, nonverbal ability, verbal ability, short-term memory, cognitive training
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