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Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive, which often leads to participant disengagement. This, in turn, may negatively impact data quality and/or reduce intervention effects. However, gamification may provide a possible solution. If game design features can be incorporated into cognitive tasks without undermining their scientific value, then data quality, intervention effects, and participant engagement may be improved. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review aims to explore and evaluate the ways in which gamification has already been used for cognitive training and assessment purposes. We hope to answer 3 questions: (1) Why have researchers opted to use gamification? (2) What domains has gamification been applied in? (3) How successful has gamification been in cognitive research thus far? METHODS: We systematically searched several Web-based databases, searching the titles, abstracts, and keywords of database entries using the search strategy (gamif* OR game OR games) AND (cognit* OR engag* OR behavi* OR health* OR attention OR motiv*). Searches included papers published in English between January 2007 and October 2015. RESULTS: Our review identified 33 relevant studies, covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks used across a range of disorders and cognitive domains. We identified 7 reasons for researchers opting to gamify their cognitive training and testing. We found that working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training. Gamified tests were typically validated successfully, although mixed-domain measurement was a problem. Gamified training appears to be highly engaging and does boost participant motivation, but mixed effects of gamification on task performance were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Heterogeneous study designs and typically small sample sizes highlight the need for further research in both gamified training and testing. Nevertheless, careful application of gamification can provide a way to develop engaging and yet scientifically valid cognitive assessments, and it is likely worthwhile to continue to develop gamified cognitive tasks in the future.
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TL;DR
This systematic review identified 33 studies covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks and found 7 reasons researchers gamify cognitive assessment or training. Gamified tasks generally improved motivation and engagement, but evidence for improved data quality was lacking, and effects on task performance were mixed.
Key findings
- The review included 33 relevant studies and 31 gamified cognitive tasks; working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training.
- Gamified assessments were typically validated successfully, with sample intertask correlations of 0.45–0.60 in some simpler validation studies, but mixed-domain measurement was a problem.
- Gamified training appeared highly engaging and boosted participant motivation, but mixed effects on task performance were reported; 21 of 33 studies compared a gamelike task directly against a nongamified counterpart.
- The authors found no evidence that gamified tests improve data quality and some indications they may worsen it, while positive training findings were tentative due to methodological problems.
Methods
- Systematic search of PsycInfo, Medline, ETHOS, EMBASE, PubMed, IBSS, Francis, Web of Science, and Scopus using `(gamif* OR game OR games) AND (cognit* OR engag* OR behavi* OR health* OR attention OR motiv*)`, limited to English papers from January 2007 to October 2015.
- Inclusion required primary empirical research on a novel gamelike task designed to assess or train cognition and either validated or piloted; non–peer-reviewed papers, education/health-promotion/rehabilitation gamification, and non-gamelike VR/3D environments were excluded.
- Papers were screened by one reviewer (JL) in three stages, with a second reviewer (EE) rescreening 20% from the title stage onward; inter-rater agreement was moderate (k=.526, 95% CI 0.416–0.633, P<.001).
Limitations
- The paper states that the review required a narrow scope focused on cognitive training and testing, which led to some papers being excluded on the subjective basis of not being “cognitive research,” and that many included studies were preliminary, making findings tentative.
- The paper states that sample sizes were small in nearly all reviewed studies and only 5 of 33 papers described a power calculation.
- Evident from the text: many training games used only a gamified task, so the effect of gamification could not be dissociated from the intervention effect, and validation standards were heterogeneous.
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“Gamified tests were typically validated successfully”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“We found that working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“although mixed-domain measurement was a problem”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“mixed effects of gamification on task performance were reported”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“We identified 7 reasons for researchers opting to gamify their cognitive training and testing.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“Three of the 6 games were very simplistic, with only a few specific game mechanics and carefully designed nongame controls, to make the effects of the game mechanics on the data as apparent as possible.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“we found 11 studies (8 games) that used gamification to reduce participant dropout rates over a protracted testing or training programme.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“Six studies cited evidence that playing video games can be cognitively beneficial and/or stimulating as a key factor in their decision to gamify.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Five other games were aimed at young children, and reframed the cognitive assessment as a game, to test the children under optimal mental conditions [41].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] source
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In the paper
“Eleven tasks were gamified specifically to enhance appeal with a given age group”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 44
- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
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In the paper
“Gamified training appears to be highly engaging and does boost participant motivation”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review identified 33 relevant studies, covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks used across a range of disorders and cognitive domains.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“we found 16 studies that explicitly used gamified tasks to measure or train cognition in a more motivating manner, and the majority (10 of 16) of these studies were assessment studies.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“Heterogeneous study designs and typically small sample sizes”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Conclusions
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In the paper
“Many of these games were used in an unobserved, nonlaboratory setting; therefore, the tasks made use of motivational features that made the training and testing intrinsically more appealing and less of a burden to perform on a regular basis.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Again, working memory was a popular target, closely followed by EF and inhibitory control training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“Many games tested several cognitive domains and/or general EF, highlighting the difficulty of examining gamification effects on specific cognitive domains (and therefore comparing performance to standard cognitive tasks).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“It is also worth noting that the numbers of studies investigating cognitive testing (17) and training (15) were very similar”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“General executive function (EF), attention, and inhibition were also commonly tested domains.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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“The Great Brain Experiment aimed to keep task sessions below 5 minutes in duration and found that the shortest task, the Stop Signal Task, was the most popular mini game.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“We found comparable numbers of games used for cognitive testing (17) and training (13), with one game that can be used for both testing and training”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“these games tended to build simple game-archetypes, such as space invaders or whack-a-mole, around an existing cognitive task; with the goal of encouraging self-motivation, improving participant enjoyment, and even reducing test anxiety [17].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] McPherson, J, 2007, Behav Res Methods source
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In the paper
“For example, use of exploratory factor analysis showed that Whack-a-Mole’s primary output measure was correlated with 2 of the 3 EFs of interest: inhibition (r (22)=.60, P<.001) and updating (r (22) = .35, P<.05) [33].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] source
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In the paper
“Validation studies varied in their design, and some studies reported complex correlations between gamified and nongamified tasks with multiple outputs.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“There is a smaller overlap in domains covered by cognitive training tasks; test batteries tend to test a wide range of domains, whereas training focuses on 1 or 2 domains exclusively.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“The initial study was successful, with Space Code’s output measure correlating well with a conventional measure of processing speed (r (58)=.55, P<.001).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“The Continuous Performance Task-II detected more commission errors from the ADHD adults as expected (mean [M]=56, standard deviation [SD]=13 vs M=46, SD=10), but Retirement Party did not (M=14.4, SD=5.8 vs M=13.2, SD=4.3)”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“We saw several games aimed at training and testing people with ADHD, and overall, these games appear highly engaging to users, in some cases, even increasing the time spent training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
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In the paper
“Indeed, gamification was reported as both motivational and positive by study authors and participants alike.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
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In the paper
“Our review found no evidence to support that gamified tests can be used to improve data quality, either by reducing between-subject noise or by improving participant performance”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
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In the paper
“3D graphics were quite prevalent, as was the use of avatars, points, levels, and dynamically growing game worlds”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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In the paper
“In contrast, assessment games were simpler, predominantly using 2D graphics, sound effects, score, and theme to create the appearance of a game.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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In the paper
“Training games typically contained many features and were similar in appearance to commercial video games.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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- Rests on an assumption: Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective.
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In the paper
“Papers were only included in the review on the agreement of both JL and EE.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Methods > Screening
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In the paper
“We used Cohen K to assess inter-rater reliability of paper inclusion at the 20% data check stage (7590 papers checked). There was moderate agreement between the 2 reviewers (k=.526, 95% CI, 0.416 to 0.633, P<.001).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Search Results
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In the paper
“Furthermore, using games as a vehicle to deliver cognitive training may also be advantageous simply because video games appear to have positive effects on a number of outcomes, including working memory, attentional capacity, problem solving, motivation, emotional control, and prosocial behaviors [6].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] source
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In the paper
“A second reviewer (EE) rescreened 20% of the papers from the title stage onward to ensure that no relevant papers were missed.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Methods > Screening
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In the paper
“In a similar vein, cognitive assessment has been accused of being ecologically invalid [60].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, patients with ADHD react differently from controls to rewards and feedback: they prefer strong reinforcement and immediate feedback, as well as clear goals and objectives, all of which can easily be delivered in a gamelike environment [22,24,62].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is good evidence that video game players outperform nongamers on tests of working memory [52] visual attention [53,54] and processing speed [55,56].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is likely due to its ease of testing and also because working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As Dunbar et al explain [8], games are uniquely suited to some forms of cognitive training as they give the player freedom to make choices and experience feedback on the effects of those choices; in other words, they provide opportunities for experiential learning [61].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Kolb, D, 1984, Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the slightly smaller proportion of games used to deliver cognitive training is likely explained by the relative recency of the field.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Gamification aims to increase engagement with tasks that might otherwise be perceived as demotivating [48]”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] ErikssonBMusialikMWagnerJStudent essay20120862016-07-08Gamification - Engaging the Future https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/30037
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Commercial gamification is often used to create long-term interest around a user experience, product, or event [13].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Broadly speaking, these were well-designed and well-powered studies, and together, they provide encouraging evidence that cognitive tests can be gamified and still be useful as a research tool.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a performance boost resulting from gamelike elements is a disadvantage when performing cognitive assessment but is likely to be desirable in a cognitive training scenario.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that Space Code was thought to be a fairly pure measure in one study and then was shown to be mixed-domain in the next highlights the fact that designing gamified cognitive tasks is difficult, and multiple, well-powered validation studies may be required to ensure a task is measuring what is intended.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given the relatively large combined sample size of these studies (N=200), they provide good evidence that game mechanics can be included in cognitive tests without invalidating the data and with the desired effect of increasing motivation.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The dopaminergic system is thought to be abnormal in ADHD [66,67].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
- Not checked yetcites [67] 1996, Mol Psychiatry
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gamified tasks may be valuable for assessing ADHD patients as computer games are particularly appealing to them: with rapid rewards, immediate feedback, and time-pressure being exactly the type of stimulus the ADHD brain craves [64,65].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Kok, A, 2002, Autism source
- Not checked yetcites [65] WebMD20122016-04-19Video Games and ADHD: What's the Link? http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/features/adhd-and-video-games-is-there-a-link?print=true
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The Great Brain Experiment [39] and GAME [46] both showed gamelike tasks to be appropriate for measuring and training working memory.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“McNab and Dolan showing that data collected from 2 very different gamified and nongamified tasks could fit similar models of working memory capacity.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Children in the gamelike condition were also more engaged and enjoyed the training more, as measured by “absence time.””
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found that these gamelike features increased the effect of training, reducing reaction times and switch costs, compared against a non–gamelike version of the training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An additional consideration is that many of the studies reviewed were of a preliminary nature, and as such, the findings reported here should be considered tentative.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“thus making the participant experience less effortful and potentially reducing drop-outs in longitudinal studies.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tasks of this nature represent gamification at its simplest, but they were well received by users, implying that minimal gamification is better than no gamification.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The simplicity of gamification employed is likely due to the constant tension between creating an engaging task and the risk of undermining the task’s scientific validity: including unknown game mechanics might have deleterious effects on the data collected.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and served to sustain engagement over a long period.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“papers were only included in the review on consensus from both reviewers (JL and EE), and a 20% selection check was performed by EE on papers from the title-screening stage onward.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, Katz et al [34] and Miranda and Palmer [36] highlight that this can be difficult balancing act, with several game mechanics having unforeseen deleterious effects on performance.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The results of references [9,17,18,38], show that gamified tasks can be used to improve motivation, while still maintaining a scientifically valid task.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many training games used a gamified task only, meaning the effect of gamification cannot be dissociated from the effect of the intervention.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Validating Gamified Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this may improve player performance and motivation.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gamelike tasks may also reduce feelings of test anxiety and allow alternative interfaces to cognitive tests that would otherwise be difficult to deliver in certain populations.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive.
“Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive, which often leads to participant disengagement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To the authors' knowledge, there have been no systematic reviews of gamification in cognitive research.
“To our knowledge, there have been no systematic reviews of gamification in cognitive research.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The highly repetitive nature of cognitive tasks means they are ripe for improvement.
“the highly repetitive nature of cognitive tasks means they are ripe for improvement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive tests are typically a one-off measure, and replayability is not a requirement.
“Cognitive tests are typically a one off measure, and replayability is not a requirement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.
“working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective.
“Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective”
The paper relies on this without support.
Engagement will be the key to collecting high-quality data as cognitive research moves out of the laboratory and onto personal computers and mobile devices.
“As cognitive research begins to move out of the laboratory and onto personal computers and mobile devices, engagement will be the key to collecting high-quality data.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Those authors found improvements in time management and planning/organization, and a reduction in hyperactivity symptoms in a group of students with ADHD who received an SG intervention.”
From Serious Games and Their Effect Improving Attention in Students with Learning Disabilities (2019) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“These results are in line with previous research stating that playing videogames can increase concentration and other cognitive variables, such as processing speed or visual discrimination [12,13,14,15,16].”
From Serious Games and Their Effect Improving Attention in Students with Learning Disabilities (2019) · cites this paper as [16]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: r (22) = .35, p < .05
MinorThe paper reports p < .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .094 (two-tailed). The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .094
“r (22) = .35, P<.05”
p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: r (22)=.60, p < .001
MinorThe paper reports p < .001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .002 (two-tailed). The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002
“r (22)=.60, P<.001”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upr(22) = 0.6reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002
“r (22)=.60, p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upr(22) = 0.35reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .094
“r (22) = .35, p < .05”
- Consistentr(58) = 0.55reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“r (58)=.55, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Trapp study has conflicting publication years
MinorTable 1 dates the Trapp et al study to 2008, while its matching reference lists BMC Psychiatry 2013.
“| Trapp et al, 2008 [19] | Cognitive remediation improves cognition and good cognitive performance increases time to relapse—results of a 5-year catamnestic study in schizophrenia patients | Xcog | Training |”
“19. Trapp W Landgrebe Michael Hoesl Katharina Lautenbacher Stefan Gallhofer Bernd Günther Wilfried Hajak Goeran Cognitive remediation improves cognition and good cognitive performance increases time to relapse--results of a 5 year catamnestic study in schizophrenia patients BMC Psychiatry 2013 13 184”
Ninaus finding points to a different reference
MinorThe text attributes the working-memory performance finding to Ninaus et al but cites reference 48, which is an essay by Eriksson and colleagues. The Ninaus study is listed as reference 46.
“With Ninaus et al, presenting evidence that gamification can improve overall participant performance in a working memory training task [48]”
“48. Eriksson B Musialik M Wagner J Student essay 2012 08 6 2016-07-08 Gamification - Engaging the Future”
Citations
Cites
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599 · cited 1×
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
Method(1983) · Cited by 33,192
Moral Identity and Developmental Theory
Lapsley, D. K. (2015) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000435926 · Cited by 3,843
The motivational pull of video games: a self-determination theory approach
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8 · Cited by 3,332 · cited 1×
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
MethodReality is Broken Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-6095 · Cited by 2,933 · cited 1×
“By their nature, games present users with difficult challenges to overcome and use narrative structure, complex graphics, strategic elements, and intuitive rules to engage the user [3].”
BackgroundEysenbach, G. (2005) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.7.1.e11 · Cited by 2,524 · cited 1×
“This is a particular problem for Web-based studies where participants can simply close the browser window and drop out of the study the moment they decide it is not worth their time [5].”
BackgroundIs working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782 · cited 1×
“Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability [57-59].”
BackgroundVideo game training enhances cognitive control in older adults
Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., Kong, E., Larraburo, Y., Rolle, C., Johnston, E., et al. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12486 · Cited by 1,666 · cited 2×
“…of treated cases with bulimia nervosa Fagundo et al, 2013 [29] Training Neuroracer Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults Anguera et al, 2013 [30] Training Braingame Brian A pilot study of the efficacy of a computerized executive functioning remediation training with…”
BackgroundBoyle, E. A., Hainey, T., Connolly, T. M., Gray, G., Earp, J., Ott, M., Lim, T., Ninaus, M., Ribeiro, C., & Pereira, J. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003 · Cited by 1,133 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, using games as a vehicle to deliver cognitive training may also be advantageous simply because video games appear to have positive effects on a number of outcomes, including working memory, attentional capacity, problem solving, motivation, emotional control, and prosocial behaviors [6].”
MethodDopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention
Nieoullon, A. (2002) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(02)00011-4 · Cited by 1,131 · cited 1×
“However, it is thought that playing video games can facilitate the release of extrastriatal dopamine, which plays a role in focusing attention and heightening arousal [68,69]; this may improve player performance and motivation.”
Background
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 71 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Gamberini, L, 2010, Stud Health Technol Inform, 154, 29
- 1996, Mol Psychiatry, 1, 121
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 584
Fabbri, L., Mosca, I. E., Gerli, F., Martini, L., Pancani, S., Lucidi, G., Savazzi, F. A., Baglio, F., Vannetti, F., Macchi, C., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.01040 · Cited by 23
Factors driving continued use of online health promotion competitions
Song, X., Liu, Y.-H., Jin, J., & Zhao, J. (2018) · Online Information Review · doi:10.1108/oir-02-2017-0047 · Cited by 21
Lin, Y.-H., Mao, H., Lin, K. N., Tang, Y. L., Yang, C.-L., & Chou, J.-J. (2020) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2020.3041017 · Cited by 21
“The advantages of such methods are that users’ motivation can be stimulated; participants’ anxiety can be reduced, which would improve performance; the interface used can be equipped with more intuition and usability for the target group; and the possibility of long-term participation can be increased [11].”
BackgroundExamining the Use of Game-Based Assessments for Hiring Autistic Job Seekers
Willis, C. M. G., Powell-Rudy, T., Colley, K. L., & Prasad, J. J. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9040053 · Cited by 24
“Research has suggested that gamification improves upon traditional formats by offering a more engaging candidate experience and capturing more information via gameplay and trace behaviors (Lumsden et al. 2016; Quiroga et al. 2016).”
BackgroundChua, L.-K., Chung, Y., Bellard, D., Swan, L., Gobreial, N., Romano, A., Glatt, R. M., Bonaguidi, M. A., Lee, D. J., Jin, Y., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182312384 · Cited by 22
“, score system, visual stimulation, auditory feedback, goals and targets, touch-response augmentation) in the dual task taxonomy used for neurorehabilitation has the potential to enhance engagement and motivation to ensure high-quality time spent on training through effort investment (with participants putting forth t…”
BackgroundImplementation of a hepatitis-themed virtual escape room in pharmacy education: A pilot study
Krishnan, S., Blebil, A. Q., Dujaili, J. A., et al. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-11745-1 · Cited by 21
“A systematic review by Lumsden et al. (2016) amalgamates the fidelity of educational games on cogni - tion which includes improved problem-solving skills, faster processing speed, being more goal-oriented and reaching a focused state of mind.”
BackgroundThe added value of game elements: better training performance but comparable learning gains
Ninaus, M., Cortez, R. L. A., Hazin, I., Kiili, K. J. M., Wortha, S. M., Klein, E., Weiss, E. M., & Moeller, K. (2023) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-023-10263-8 · Cited by 21
Tong, K., Chan, Y. N., Cheng, X., Cheon, B. K., Ellefson, M. R., Fauziana, R., Feng, S., Fischer, N. L., Gulyás, B. Z., Hoo, N. P., et al. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286208 · Cited by 33
Flynn, R. M., Colon-Acosta, N., Zhou, J., & Bower, J. D. (2019) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-03881-w · Cited by 17
“Pairing game-like elements with clinical assessments can substantially improve the quality of data collected by clinical professionals while enhancing the experience of the participants (Lumsden et al. 2016).”
BackgroundTransfer and Motivation After Cognitive Control Training for Remitted Depression in Healthy Sample
Vervaeke, J., Hoorelbeke, K., Baeken, C., LOOY, J. V., & Koster, E. H. W. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-019-00135-6 · Cited by 21
“Particularly regarding CR, gamification often increases motivation but has rarely shown to impact training outcomes (Lumsden et al. 2016; Deveau et al. 2015; Mohammed et al. 2017).”
BackgroundMethodSmartphones within Psychological Science
Ellis, D. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671408 · Cited by 14
A Game-Based Online Tool to Measure Cognitive Functions in Students
Berg, V. (2021) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v8i1.410 · Cited by 22
“To increase task engagement and effort, some researchers have added game elements to traditional tasks [10, 28].”
BackgroundInfluentialA Visuo-Haptic Attention Training Game With Dynamic Adjustment of Difficulty
Peng, C., Wang, D., Zhang, Y., & Xiao, J. (2019) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2019.2918846 · Cited by 21
Eng, C. M., Tsegai-Moore, A., & Fisher, A. V. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14050451 · Cited by 26
“This method permitted programming the novel GA and traditional version of the EF task to be presented on the same software platform, identical in function, response keys, and developed to produce the same output measures [58].”
MethodWalker, L. A., Chambers, C., Veling, H., & Lawrence, N. (2019) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.190624 · Cited by 16
“Additionally, logistical aspects, such as the optimum frequency, timing and duration of training and design elements, such as how to increase user engagement and enjoyment [68], require further research to understand how to maximize changes in eating behaviour.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSchroeder, P. A., Lohmann, J., & Ninaus, M. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/25063 · Cited by 19
“Consequently, the so-called gamification [19] of cognitive trainings has increased substantially in recent years [20].”
BackgroundRedlinger, E., Glas, B., & Rong, Y. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/35295 · Cited by 24
McHenry, M. S., Mukherjee, D., Bhavnani, S., Kirolos, A., Piper, J., Crespo-Llado, M. M., & Gladstone, M. (2023) · PLOS Digital Health · doi:10.1371/journal.pdig.0000196 · Cited by 24
“These tools permit the administration and scoring of a broad array of tasks that measure specific domains of cognitive functioning with minimal potential for error, while also having the potential to be gamified [27], increasing children’s interest in these cognitive tasks.”
BackgroundDisengagement From Games: Characterizing the Experience and Process of Exiting Play Sessions
Alexandrovsky, D., Gerling, K., Opp, M. S., Hahn, C. B., Birk, M. V., & Alsheail, M. M. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3677066 · Cited by 20
Do-It-Yourself Gamified Cognitive Training: Viewpoint
van de Weijer, S. C. F., Kuijf, M. L., de Vries, N. M., Bloem, B. R., & Duits, A. (2019) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/12130 · Cited by 19
“aNoncomprehensive considerations for gamified cognitive training design (in the field of Parkinson disease); not presented in order of priority and obtained from the wider literature [7,13,15,16,19,20,30,36-39].”
Walton, C. C., Lampit, A., Boulamatsis, C., Hallock, H., Barr, P., Ginige, J. A., Brodaty, H., Chau, T., Heffernan, M., Sachdev, P. S., et al. (2019) · JMIR Aging · doi:10.2196/13135 · Cited by 21
“Gamification of CCT exercises has been proposed as a potential method of maximizing participants’ interest; however, this has not been extensively studied [28].”
MethodUsing Geocaching to Promote Active Aging: Qualitative Study
Fornasini, S., Dianti, M., Bacchiega, A., Forti, S., & Conforti, D. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/15339 · Cited by 20
“This highlights the reasons why they adopt, continue, or abandon such practices [21-23].”
BackgroundForman, E. M., Manasse, S. M., Dallal, D. H., Crochiere, R. J., Berry, M. P., Butryn, M. L., & Juarascio, A. S. (2020) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/tbm/ibaa091 · Cited by 18
“Participants completed 42 daily and 2 weekly 10 min ICTs, over 8 weeks, delivered on their home computers, via the Unity3D Game Engine [36].”
BackgroundInfluentialBrain–Computer Interface—A Brain-in-the-Loop Communication System
Gao, X., Wang, Y., Chen, X., Liu, B., & Gao, S. (2025) · Proceedings of the IEEE · doi:10.1109/jproc.2025.3600389 · Cited by 24
“Similarly, in coadaptive BCI, an elaborate feedback loop design can effectively facilitate the user’s motivation and learning, resulting in superior performance on the BCI task [257].”
Gallagher, R. A., Kessler, K., Bramham, J., Dechant, M., & Friehs, M. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1068229 · Cited by 17
“Gamification is the application of game design elements to improve participant motivation (Lumsden et al., 2016a; Warsinsky et al., 2021).”
BackgroundBurlacu, M., Coman, C., & Bularca, M. C. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su15086476 · Cited by 30
Kushnir, A. D., Kachmar, O. O., & Bonnechère, B. (2024) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24020351 · Cited by 22
“Rehabilitation now benefits from an array of existing technologies, including robotics, muscle and brain stimulation, sensor-based exergames, and virtual reality applications [24,25].”
BackgroundMellado, R., Cubillos, C., Vicari, R. M., & Gasca‐Hurtado, G. P. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14177933 · Cited by 31
Students’ Perceptions of a Gamified Reading Assessment
Reed, D. K., Martin, E., Hazeltine, E., & McMurray, B. (2019) · Journal of Special Education Technology · doi:10.1177/0162643419856272 · Cited by 22
“There is “constant tension between creating an engaging task and the risk of undermining the task’s scientific validity” (Lumsden et al., 2016, p. e11).”
BackgroundInfluentialNaets, T., Vervoort, L., Tanghe, A., & Braet, C. (2019) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2405 · Cited by 18
Vita‐Barrull, N., Guzmán, N., Estrada‐Plana, V., March‐Llanes, J., Mayoral, M., & Moya-Higueras, J. (2021) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2021.0034 · Cited by 26
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“Gami fi ed systems, with appropriate gami fi cation mechanisms such as more intuitive interactions with users, can also encourage self-motivation, improve user enjoyment and reduce user anxiety (Lumsden et al. 2016).”
BackgroundResultJagtap, S., Romanowska, S., Leibovitz, T., Onno, K. A., Burhan, A. M., & Best, M. W. (2022) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2022.100238 · Cited by 18
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“Furthermore, the overall gamification can lead to an enhanced engagement in the task [29].”
BackgroundA Review on Serious Games for ADHDPreprint
Zheng, Y., Li, R., Li, S., Zhang, Y., Yang, S., & Ning, H. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2105.02970 · Cited by 41
“evaluation process without expending more energy, and it is possible to reduce the dropout rate during the evaluation process [11].”
BackgroundEarly access to language supports number mapping skills in deaf children
Walker, K. L., Carrigan, E., & Coppola, M. (2023) · The Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education · doi:10.1093/deafed/enad045 · Cited by 17
Gamifying education and mental health
Chandran, S., Prakrithi, S., & Kishor, M. R. (2018) · Archives of Medicine and Health Sciences · doi:10.4103/amhs.amhs_92_18 · Cited by 14
Δρακόπουλος, Γ., Voutos, Y., & Phivos Mylonas, B. (2020) · Big Data and Cognitive Computing · doi:10.3390/bdcc4040039 · Cited by 16
Huang, S., Zhang, T., Lu, Q., Xiong, X., Liu, Z., & Sun, D. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-73934-3 · Cited by 16
Bonnechère, B., Bier, J., Hove, O. V., Sheldon, S., Samadoulougou, S., Kirakoya-Samadoulougou, F., & Klass, M. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/17121 · Cited by 16
Trapp, W., Heid, A., Röder, S., Wimmer, F., & Hajak, G. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12060683 · Cited by 23
“engaging, on the one hand, and boosts participants’ motivation, on the other hand [114].”
BackgroundAlexandrovsky, D., Friehs, M. A., Grittner, J., Putze, S., Birk, M. V., Malaka, R., & Mandryk, R. L. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445689 · Cited by 21
An Immersive Serious Game for the Behavioral Assessment of Psychological Needs
Giglioli, I. A. C., Carrasco-Ribelles, L. A., Parra, E., Marín‐Morales, J., & Alcañíz, M. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11041971 · Cited by 18
“To create valid assessment in games, “stealth” game design is providing significant evidence mainly related to learning [40,41].”
BackgroundAttention and impulsivity assessment using virtual reality games
Mendez-Encinas, D., Sujar, A., Bayona, S., & Delgado-Gomez, D. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40455-4 · Cited by 15
Ahmed, B., Khan, S., Lim, H., & Ku, J. H. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14030491 · Cited by 18
Vermeir, J. F., White, M. J., Johnson, D. M., Crombez, G., & Ryckeghem, D. M. L. V. (2021) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/32359 · Cited by 14
“Qualitative [14] and quantitative [15] reviews on gamified cognitive training tasks have found that adding game elements to repetitive tasks improves motivation and engagement.”
BackgroundBolt, G. L., Piercy, H., Barnett, A., & Manning, V. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100471 · Cited by 14
Knöbel, S., & Lautenbach, F. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1026017 · Cited by 15
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The Effect of Transcranial Random Noise Stimulation on Cognitive Training Outcome in Healthy Aging
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“Gamified cognitive tasks are supposed to be more motivating than traditional tasks, thus making the participant experience less effortful and potentially reducing drop-outs in longitudinal studies (70, 71).”
BackgroundMagno, M., Martins, A. I., Pais, J., Silva, A. G., & Rocha, N. P. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14062640 · Cited by 15
Computerized cognitive training improves cognitive function in primary breast cancer survivors
Kleinknecht, K. R., Bierend, M., Keim, L.-M., Bartels, F., Lampit, A., & Finke, C. (2024) · npj Breast Cancer · doi:10.1038/s41523-024-00694-8 · Cited by 15
Ó’Caoimh, R., Molloy, D. W., Fitzgerald, C., van Velsen, L., Cabrita, M., Nassabi, M. H., de Vette, F., Weering, M. D.-V., Jansen-Kosterink, S. M., Kenter, W., et al. (2017) · International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies for Ageing Well and e-Health (ICT4AWE) · doi:10.5220/0006331800910103 · Cited by 14
Towards a Gamified Recommender System for the Elderly
Herpich, M., Rist, T., Seiderer, A., & André, E. (2017) · International Conference on Digital Health · doi:10.1145/3079452.3079500 · Cited by 16
“Lumsden et al. [7] reviewed 33 studies on gam-ified applications for cognitive training and assessment purposes. identified a number of different reasons for deploying game elements in cognitive training and testing, including the aim to increase the users’ motivation and long-term engagement, as…”
BackgroundPräventive Geriatrie: kognitiven Abbau verhindern
Meyer, A. M., Podolski, N., Pickert, L., & Polidori, M. C. (2020) · DMW - Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1055/a-0955-9587 · Cited by 16
“[20] Lumsden J, Edwards EA, Lawrence NS et al.”
BackgroundCurrent Issues in the Conceptualization and Measurement of Executive Function Skills
Willoughby, M. T., & Hudson, K. N. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198863564.003.0002 · Cited by 19
Sipatchin, A., García, M. G., & Wahl, S. (2021) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app11157164 · Cited by 14
“Traditional tasks used for PRL development studies and therapy can be repetitive, exhaustive, and tedious, ending in a decrease in the subject’s motivation [29].”
BackgroundBernini, S., Panzarasa, S., Quaglini, S., Costa, A. C., Picascia, M., Cappa, S. F., Cerami, C., Tassorelli, C., Vecchi, T., & Bottiroli, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2023.1129914 · Cited by 14
“For each exercise and each level, thresholds are defined to allow difficulty levels to progressively increase in order to stimulate neural plasticity (4, 59, 60).”
BackgroundEngaging Children in Story Co-Creation for Effective Serious Games
Menestrina, Z., Pasqualotto, A., Siesser, A., Venuti, P., & Angeli, A. D. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su131810334 · Cited by 16
“Dropout [50] is a significant concern because existing tools are not particularly engaging [51].”
BackgroundWadsley, C. G., Cirillo, J., Nieuwenhuys, A., & Byblow, W. D. (2023) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-022-06539-9 · Cited by 10
“Points are a way to gamify a task which, in turn, can enhance task engagement and be more intuitive than information on response times for most populations (Lumsden et al. 2016).”
BackgroundGamified Cognitive Bias Interventions for Psychiatric Disorders: Protocol of a Systematic Review
Zhang, M. W., Ying, J., & Ho, R. (2018) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/10154 · Cited by 11
“Of included studies in Lumsden et al’s [4] prior review, one focused on a specific form of cognitive retraining—attention bias modification.”
InfluentialImpact of screen size on cognitive training task performance: An HMD study
Redlinger, E., Glas, B., & Rong, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.06.003 · Cited by 12
Adaptive habits: understanding executive function and its development
Niebaum, J. C., Zengilowski, A., Katz, B., Shah, P., & Munakata, Y. (2025) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2025.10.016 · Cited by 14
“Many EF assessments and interventions are gamified and incentivized to enhance motivation and engagement [38], two factors that are generally associated with improved performance [39].”
Raj, K., Segrave, R. A., Verdejo‐García, A., & Yücel, M. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2022.107600 · Cited by 10
Teruel, M. Á., Sanchís, J., Ruiz‐Robledillo, N., Albaladejo-Blázquez, N., Ferrer‐Cascales, R., & Trujillo, J. C. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26555 · Cited by 19
“In addition, over the last few years, several investigations have been developed to evaluate the validity and reliability of gamified cognitive assessments for ADHD patients [20 – 22].”
BackgroundCognitive Training Using Virtual Reality: An Assessment of Usability and Adverse Effects
Bang, M., Kim, M. A., Kim, S. S., et al. (2024) · Archives of Rehabilitation Research and Clinical Translation · doi:10.1016/j.arrct.2024.100378 · Cited by 12
Kotp, M. H., Bassyouny, H. A. A., Aly, M. A., Ibrahim, R. K., Hendy, A. S., Mekdad, A. K., Hafez, A. A., Hafez, A. A., Abdelaliem, S. M. F., Baghdadi, N. A., et al. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03253-z · Cited by 23
“By combining these strategies, teachers can create a more dynamic learning environment that meets the evolving needs of nursing students [30].”
The need of gamified assessment for engaging learning experience
Hawari, N., Zain, N. H. M., & Baharum, A. (2020) · Bulletin of Electrical Engineering and Informatics · doi:10.11591/eei.v9i2.2083 · Cited by 12
“However, a recent study showed there is a complex and challenging mission in distinguishing individual game elements to adapt in a different field [5] and to simplify the gamified task that aims to improve motivation [6].”
BackgroundGame-thinking in Personnel Recruitment and Selection: Advantages and Disadvantages
Stănescu, D. F., Ioniţă, C. G., Solutions, S. M., IONITA, A. M., & Solutions, S. M. (2020) · Postmodern Openings · doi:10.18662/po/11.2/174 · Cited by 12
“A recent review performed by Lumsden et al. (2016) pointed the need for increased rigor in evaluating game-based assessment approaches using evidence-based design studies that increase causal inferences that can be made about the validity of those games as assessment tools and increased sample…”
BackgroundInvestigating the Digital Parenting Behaviors of Parents on Children’s Digital Game Play
FİDAN, A., Güneş, H., & Karakuş, T. (2021) · Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal · doi:10.14812/cuefd.933215 · Cited by 14
Mantell, R., Withall, A., Radford, K. A., Kasumovic, M. M., Monds, L. A., & Hwang, Y. I. (2023) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/45467 · Cited by 10
Wentink, M. M., Meesters, J. J. L., Berger, M., de Kloet, A. J., Stevens, E., Band, G. P. H., Kromme, C. H., Wolterbeek, R., Goossens, P. H., & Vlieland, T. P. M. V. (2018) · Topics in Stroke Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/10749357.2018.1459362 · Cited by 12
Gielis, K., Kennes, J., Dobbeleer, C. D., Puttemans, S., & Abeele, V. V. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Healthcare Informatics (ICHI) · doi:10.1109/ichi.2019.8904511 · Cited by 12
“The repetitiousness of many gamified assessments and training can lead to participant disengagement, possibly impacting the data quality [51] [52] Furthermore, it has been reported that it is the affectionate bond with the experimenter and not the cognitive training per se that motivated participants to continue [53].”
BackgroundDieciuc, M., Zhang, S., Gray, N., Lustria, M. L. A., Carr, D. C., Charness, N. H., & Boot, W. R. (2023) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnad048 · Cited by 12
The neurocognitive correlates of non-substance addictive behaviors
Christensen, E., Albertella, L., Chamberlain, S. R., Brydevall, M., Suo, C., Grant, J. E., Yücel, M., & Lee, R. S. C. (2023) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2023.107904 · Cited by 13
An Automated Mobile Game-based Screening Tool for Patients with Alcohol Dependence
Intarasirisawat, J., Ang, C. S., Efstratiou, C., Dickens, L., Sriburapar, N., Sharma, D., & Asawathaweeboon, B. (2020) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3411837 · Cited by 12
“With the entertaining features of the games, we anticipated that individuals would be less likely to have test anxiety as reported in [30] and, therefore, this game-based measure could potentially promote self-screening for early detection of potential alcohol dependence.”
BackgroundComputerized cognitive interventions for adults with ADHD: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
Elbe, P., Bäcklund, C., Vega‐Mendoza, M., Sörman, D. E., Gavelin, H. M., Nyberg, L. H., & Ljungberg, J. K. (2023) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000890 · Cited by 11
Aneni, K., de la Vega, I. G., Jiao, M. G., Funaro, M. C., & Fiellin, L. E. (2023) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2023.02.002 · Cited by 17
Gamification in Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training for Mild Cognitive Impairment
Groznik, V., & Sadikov, A. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-15620-6_8 · Cited by 12
Ethical Issues of Gamification in Healthcare
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Redlinger, E., Glas, B., & Rong, Y. (2021) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality (AIVR) · doi:10.1145/3480433.3480435 · Cited by 11
“Of the studies that did look specifically at performance, the game-elements examined were often limited to minor interface adjustments, modified subject instructions, or they were not sufficiently granular to extract meaningful design guidance [13].”
BackgroundKhaleghi, A., Aghaei, Z., & Hosseinnia, F. (2022) · Entertainment Computing · doi:10.1016/j.entcom.2022.100504 · Cited by 11
Maximum effort may not be required for valid intelligence test score interpretations
Gignac, G. E., Bartulovich, A., & Salleo, E. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.04.007 · Cited by 12
An Expert Guide to Planning Experimental Tasks For Evidence-Accumulation Modeling
Boag, R. J., Innes, R. J., Stevenson, N., Bahg, G., Busemeyer, J. R., Cox, G. E., Donkin, C., Frank, M. J., Hawkins, G. E., Heathcote, A., et al. (2025) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/25152459251336127 · Cited by 18
““Gamifying” experiments in this way can increase participant engagement (Lumsden et al., 2016) while avoiding introducing undesirable nonsta-tionarities associated with trial-to-trial feedback (e.g., systematic learning and adaptation effects).”
Voillequin, S., Rozenberg, P., Tutour, K. L., & Rousseau, A. (2022) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-022-03761-5 · Cited by 10
“It may also increase motivation and engagement [6].”
BackgroundBipp, T., Wee, S., Walczok, M., & Hansal, L. (2024) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence12120129 · Cited by 10
“Additionally, several authors investigated video games to enhance study participants’ cognitive ability (overview in Lumsden et al. 2016; Sala et al. 2018).”
Li, A., Qiang, W., Li, J., Geng, Y., Qiang, Y., & Zhao, J. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/69109 · Cited by 8
RetractedHewko, M. D., Shaigetz, V. G., Smith, M. S. D., Kohlenberg, E. M., Ahmadi, P., Hernandez, M. E. H., Proulx, C., Cabral, A., Segado, M., Chakrabarty, T., et al. (2025) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/59514 · Cited by 9
“For instance, adding too many gamification elements that rely on external rewards can overwhelm the user with unnecessary cognitive demands, potentially invalidating the task [47].”
Grinschgl, S., Ninaus, M., Wood, G. M. D. O., & Neubauer, A. C. (2025) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2025.05.002 · Cited by 12
Intelligence, creativity, and ‘PLines’ computer game performance by middle school age students
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Neuropsychological screening with TOWI: Performance in 6- to 12-year-old children
Gómez-Tello, M. F., Rosetti, M., Galicia-Alvarado, M. A., Maya, C., & Apiquián, R. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1764357 · Cited by 10
“Gamified versions of computer-based tasks that implement game related elements (e.g., narrative, graphics, goals and rules) are becoming more attractive and popular because, in addition to the previously mentioned advantages, they can be more engaging and motivational (Lumsden et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe role of cognition for identifying unsafe young drivers
Meco, A. D., Bennett, J. M., Batchelor, J., Chekaluk, E., Andrews, E., & Habib, J. (2020) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2020.105099 · Cited by 10
Bernini, S., Panzarasa, S., Sinforiani, E., Quaglini, S., Cappa, S. F., Cerami, C., Tassorelli, C., Vecchi, T., & Bottiroli, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.752830 · Cited by 10
“Furthermore, for each exercise and each level, thresholds are defined to allow difficulty levels to progressively increase in order to stimulate neural plasticity (6, 45, 46).”
BackgroundAddressing Test Anxiety Using Game-Based Assessment
Bonefont, V., Carbino, B., & Zakerzadeh, R. (2022) · Biomedical Engineering Education · doi:10.1007/s43683-022-00082-3 · Cited by 11
Tünnermann, J., Kristjansson, A. K., Petersen, A., Schubö, A., & Scharlau, I. (2022) · Open Psychology · doi:10.1515/psych-2022-0002 · Cited by 10
“So, while keeping to the idea of an experiment as a collection of separate trials belonging to different conditions, gamification might be a way to circumvent its perceived artificiality or tediousness (see, e.g., the review by Lumsden et al., 2016) or lack of effort (DeRight & Jorgensen, 2015).”
BackgroundResultTAG-ME again: A serious game for measuring working memory
Hu, Y. Z., Parimoo, S., Chignell, M., Lowe, C. J., & Morton, J. B. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2183361 · Cited by 10
“Serious games are cognitive tasks designed as games that people can play at their leisure, both unsupervised and online (Lumsden et al., 2016).”
McConville, J. R., Billger, M., Niwagaba, C. B., & Kain, J. (2023) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2023.04.002 · Cited by 11
Influence of game features on attention in adults
Gallen, C. L., Schachtner, J. N., Anguera‐Singla, R., Anguera, J. A., & Gazzaley, A. H. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1123306 · Cited by 7
“Although our null results should be interpreted with caution given our sample sizes and the size of effects we could detect, these results mirror previous equivocal findings on whether game features enhance or impair performance (Lumsden et al., 2016; Khaleghi et al., 2021) and provide compelling evidence that such di…”
BackgroundResult
Metadata
- Authors
- Lumsden, J., Edwards, E. A., Lawrence, N. S., Coyle, D., & Munafò, M. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- University of Exeter (GB)
- University College Dublin (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Lumsden, Jim
- Venue
- JMIR Serious Games
- Publisher
- JMIR Publications Inc.
- Published
- 2016-07-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e11
- ISSN
- 2291-9279 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4967181
- OpenAlex
- W2465353856
- Semantic Scholar
- 4f2c6684a94d57d5dc731e41341a6b0109778428
- Cited by
- 555
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 6
- FWCI
- 6.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JMIR Serious Games (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (acceptedVersion)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Repository UCD (University College Dublin) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (092731)
- United Kingdom Clinical Research Collaboration
- Cancer Research UK
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR-IPF-16-10-04)
- British Heart Foundation
- University of Bristol (092731, MC_UU_12013/6)
- Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12013, MR/K023195/1, 092731, MC_UU_12013/6)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/G007489/1, 1325188)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- gamification, cognitive assessment, cognitive training, participant engagement, working memory, executive function, game elements, task validation, motivation, neuropsychological assessment
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