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Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive, which often leads to participant disengagement. This, in turn, may negatively impact data quality and/or reduce intervention effects. However, gamification may provide a possible solution. If game design features can be incorporated into cognitive tasks without undermining their scientific value, then data quality, intervention effects, and participant engagement may be improved. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review aims to explore and evaluate the ways in which gamification has already been used for cognitive training and assessment purposes. We hope to answer 3 questions: (1) Why have researchers opted to use gamification? (2) What domains has gamification been applied in? (3) How successful has gamification been in cognitive research thus far? METHODS: We systematically searched several Web-based databases, searching the titles, abstracts, and keywords of database entries using the search strategy (gamif* OR game OR games) AND (cognit* OR engag* OR behavi* OR health* OR attention OR motiv*). Searches included papers published in English between January 2007 and October 2015. RESULTS: Our review identified 33 relevant studies, covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks used across a range of disorders and cognitive domains. We identified 7 reasons for researchers opting to gamify their cognitive training and testing. We found that working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training. Gamified tests were typically validated successfully, although mixed-domain measurement was a problem. Gamified training appears to be highly engaging and does boost participant motivation, but mixed effects of gamification on task performance were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Heterogeneous study designs and typically small sample sizes highlight the need for further research in both gamified training and testing. Nevertheless, careful application of gamification can provide a way to develop engaging and yet scientifically valid cognitive assessments, and it is likely worthwhile to continue to develop gamified cognitive tasks in the future.
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TL;DR
This systematic review identified 33 studies covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks and found 7 reasons researchers gamify cognitive assessment or training. Gamified tasks generally improved motivation and engagement, but evidence for improved data quality was lacking, and effects on task performance were mixed.
Key findings
- The review included 33 relevant studies and 31 gamified cognitive tasks; working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training.
- Gamified assessments were typically validated successfully, with sample intertask correlations of 0.45–0.60 in some simpler validation studies, but mixed-domain measurement was a problem.
- Gamified training appeared highly engaging and boosted participant motivation, but mixed effects on task performance were reported; 21 of 33 studies compared a gamelike task directly against a nongamified counterpart.
- The authors found no evidence that gamified tests improve data quality and some indications they may worsen it, while positive training findings were tentative due to methodological problems.
Methods
- Systematic search of PsycInfo, Medline, ETHOS, EMBASE, PubMed, IBSS, Francis, Web of Science, and Scopus using `(gamif* OR game OR games) AND (cognit* OR engag* OR behavi* OR health* OR attention OR motiv*)`, limited to English papers from January 2007 to October 2015.
- Inclusion required primary empirical research on a novel gamelike task designed to assess or train cognition and either validated or piloted; non–peer-reviewed papers, education/health-promotion/rehabilitation gamification, and non-gamelike VR/3D environments were excluded.
- Papers were screened by one reviewer (JL) in three stages, with a second reviewer (EE) rescreening 20% from the title stage onward; inter-rater agreement was moderate (k=.526, 95% CI 0.416–0.633, P<.001).
Limitations
- The paper states that the review required a narrow scope focused on cognitive training and testing, which led to some papers being excluded on the subjective basis of not being “cognitive research,” and that many included studies were preliminary, making findings tentative.
- The paper states that sample sizes were small in nearly all reviewed studies and only 5 of 33 papers described a power calculation.
- Evident from the text: many training games used only a gamified task, so the effect of gamification could not be dissociated from the intervention effect, and validation standards were heterogeneous.
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“Gamified tests were typically validated successfully”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“We found that working memory and general executive functions were common targets for both gamified assessment and training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“although mixed-domain measurement was a problem”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“mixed effects of gamification on task performance were reported”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“We identified 7 reasons for researchers opting to gamify their cognitive training and testing.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“Three of the 6 games were very simplistic, with only a few specific game mechanics and carefully designed nongame controls, to make the effects of the game mechanics on the data as apparent as possible.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“we found 11 studies (8 games) that used gamification to reduce participant dropout rates over a protracted testing or training programme.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“Six studies cited evidence that playing video games can be cognitively beneficial and/or stimulating as a key factor in their decision to gamify.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Five other games were aimed at young children, and reframed the cognitive assessment as a game, to test the children under optimal mental conditions [41].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [41] source
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In the paper
“Eleven tasks were gamified specifically to enhance appeal with a given age group”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 44
- Probably not a substantial claim. 19
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In the paper
“Gamified training appears to be highly engaging and does boost participant motivation”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our review identified 33 relevant studies, covering 31 gamified cognitive tasks used across a range of disorders and cognitive domains.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Results
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In the paper
“we found 16 studies that explicitly used gamified tasks to measure or train cognition in a more motivating manner, and the majority (10 of 16) of these studies were assessment studies.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“Heterogeneous study designs and typically small sample sizes”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Abstract > Conclusions
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In the paper
“Many of these games were used in an unobserved, nonlaboratory setting; therefore, the tasks made use of motivational features that made the training and testing intrinsically more appealing and less of a burden to perform on a regular basis.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
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In the paper
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Again, working memory was a popular target, closely followed by EF and inhibitory control training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“Many games tested several cognitive domains and/or general EF, highlighting the difficulty of examining gamification effects on specific cognitive domains (and therefore comparing performance to standard cognitive tasks).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“It is also worth noting that the numbers of studies investigating cognitive testing (17) and training (15) were very similar”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“General executive function (EF), attention, and inhibition were also commonly tested domains.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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“The Great Brain Experiment aimed to keep task sessions below 5 minutes in duration and found that the shortest task, the Stop Signal Task, was the most popular mini game.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“We found comparable numbers of games used for cognitive testing (17) and training (13), with one game that can be used for both testing and training”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“these games tended to build simple game-archetypes, such as space invaders or whack-a-mole, around an existing cognitive task; with the goal of encouraging self-motivation, improving participant enjoyment, and even reducing test anxiety [17].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] McPherson, J, 2007, Behav Res Methods source
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In the paper
“For example, use of exploratory factor analysis showed that Whack-a-Mole’s primary output measure was correlated with 2 of the 3 EFs of interest: inhibition (r (22)=.60, P<.001) and updating (r (22) = .35, P<.05) [33].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] source
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In the paper
“Validation studies varied in their design, and some studies reported complex correlations between gamified and nongamified tasks with multiple outputs.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“There is a smaller overlap in domains covered by cognitive training tasks; test batteries tend to test a wide range of domains, whereas training focuses on 1 or 2 domains exclusively.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
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In the paper
“The initial study was successful, with Space Code’s output measure correlating well with a conventional measure of processing speed (r (58)=.55, P<.001).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“The Continuous Performance Task-II detected more commission errors from the ADHD adults as expected (mean [M]=56, standard deviation [SD]=13 vs M=46, SD=10), but Retirement Party did not (M=14.4, SD=5.8 vs M=13.2, SD=4.3)”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
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In the paper
“We saw several games aimed at training and testing people with ADHD, and overall, these games appear highly engaging to users, in some cases, even increasing the time spent training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
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In the paper
“Indeed, gamification was reported as both motivational and positive by study authors and participants alike.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
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In the paper
“Our review found no evidence to support that gamified tests can be used to improve data quality, either by reducing between-subject noise or by improving participant performance”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
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In the paper
“3D graphics were quite prevalent, as was the use of avatars, points, levels, and dynamically growing game worlds”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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In the paper
“In contrast, assessment games were simpler, predominantly using 2D graphics, sound effects, score, and theme to create the appearance of a game.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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In the paper
“Training games typically contained many features and were similar in appearance to commercial video games.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
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- Rests on an assumption: Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective.
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In the paper
“Papers were only included in the review on the agreement of both JL and EE.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Methods > Screening
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In the paper
“We used Cohen K to assess inter-rater reliability of paper inclusion at the 20% data check stage (7590 papers checked). There was moderate agreement between the 2 reviewers (k=.526, 95% CI, 0.416 to 0.633, P<.001).”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Search Results
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In the paper
“Furthermore, using games as a vehicle to deliver cognitive training may also be advantageous simply because video games appear to have positive effects on a number of outcomes, including working memory, attentional capacity, problem solving, motivation, emotional control, and prosocial behaviors [6].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] source
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In the paper
“A second reviewer (EE) rescreened 20% of the papers from the title stage onward to ensure that no relevant papers were missed.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Methods > Screening
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In the paper
“In a similar vein, cognitive assessment has been accused of being ecologically invalid [60].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, patients with ADHD react differently from controls to rewards and feedback: they prefer strong reinforcement and immediate feedback, as well as clear goals and objectives, all of which can easily be delivered in a gamelike environment [22,24,62].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“There is good evidence that video game players outperform nongamers on tests of working memory [52] visual attention [53,54] and processing speed [55,56].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is likely due to its ease of testing and also because working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“As Dunbar et al explain [8], games are uniquely suited to some forms of cognitive training as they give the player freedom to make choices and experience feedback on the effects of those choices; in other words, they provide opportunities for experiential learning [61].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Kolb, D, 1984, Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the slightly smaller proportion of games used to deliver cognitive training is likely explained by the relative recency of the field.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > What Are the Application Areas of Gamification?
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Gamification aims to increase engagement with tasks that might otherwise be perceived as demotivating [48]”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] ErikssonBMusialikMWagnerJStudent essay20120862016-07-08Gamification - Engaging the Future https://gupea.ub.gu.se/handle/2077/30037
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Commercial gamification is often used to create long-term interest around a user experience, product, or event [13].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Why Do Researchers Use Gamification?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [13] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Broadly speaking, these were well-designed and well-powered studies, and together, they provide encouraging evidence that cognitive tests can be gamified and still be useful as a research tool.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such a performance boost resulting from gamelike elements is a disadvantage when performing cognitive assessment but is likely to be desirable in a cognitive training scenario.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fact that Space Code was thought to be a fairly pure measure in one study and then was shown to be mixed-domain in the next highlights the fact that designing gamified cognitive tasks is difficult, and multiple, well-powered validation studies may be required to ensure a task is measuring what is intended.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given the relatively large combined sample size of these studies (N=200), they provide good evidence that game mechanics can be included in cognitive tests without invalidating the data and with the desired effect of increasing motivation.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The dopaminergic system is thought to be abnormal in ADHD [66,67].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
- Not checked yetcites [67] 1996, Mol Psychiatry
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Gamified tasks may be valuable for assessing ADHD patients as computer games are particularly appealing to them: with rapid rewards, immediate feedback, and time-pressure being exactly the type of stimulus the ADHD brain craves [64,65].”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Kok, A, 2002, Autism source
- Not checked yetcites [65] WebMD20122016-04-19Video Games and ADHD: What's the Link? http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/childhood-adhd/features/adhd-and-video-games-is-there-a-link?print=true
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The Great Brain Experiment [39] and GAME [46] both showed gamelike tasks to be appropriate for measuring and training working memory.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“McNab and Dolan showing that data collected from 2 very different gamified and nongamified tasks could fit similar models of working memory capacity.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [39] source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Children in the gamelike condition were also more engaged and enjoyed the training more, as measured by “absence time.””
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [24] source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found that these gamelike features increased the effect of training, reducing reaction times and switch costs, compared against a non–gamelike version of the training.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Results > Does Gamification Work?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An additional consideration is that many of the studies reviewed were of a preliminary nature, and as such, the findings reported here should be considered tentative.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“thus making the participant experience less effortful and potentially reducing drop-outs in longitudinal studies.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Tasks of this nature represent gamification at its simplest, but they were well received by users, implying that minimal gamification is better than no gamification.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The simplicity of gamification employed is likely due to the constant tension between creating an engaging task and the risk of undermining the task’s scientific validity: including unknown game mechanics might have deleterious effects on the data collected.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and served to sustain engagement over a long period.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Differences Between Training and Assessment Tasks
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“papers were only included in the review on consensus from both reviewers (JL and EE), and a 20% selection check was performed by EE on papers from the title-screening stage onward.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, Katz et al [34] and Miranda and Palmer [36] highlight that this can be difficult balancing act, with several game mechanics having unforeseen deleterious effects on performance.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The results of references [9,17,18,38], show that gamified tasks can be used to improve motivation, while still maintaining a scientifically valid task.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many training games used a gamified task only, meaning the effect of gamification cannot be dissociated from the effect of the intervention.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Validating Gamified Tasks
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“this may improve player performance and motivation.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Principal Results
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Gamelike tasks may also reduce feelings of test anxiety and allow alternative interfaces to cognitive tests that would otherwise be difficult to deliver in certain populations.”
§ Gamification of Cognitive Assessment and Cognitive Training: A Systematic Review of Applications and Efficacy > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive.
“Cognitive tasks are typically viewed as effortful, frustrating, and repetitive, which often leads to participant disengagement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To the authors' knowledge, there have been no systematic reviews of gamification in cognitive research.
“To our knowledge, there have been no systematic reviews of gamification in cognitive research.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The highly repetitive nature of cognitive tasks means they are ripe for improvement.
“the highly repetitive nature of cognitive tasks means they are ripe for improvement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive tests are typically a one-off measure, and replayability is not a requirement.
“Cognitive tests are typically a one off measure, and replayability is not a requirement.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.
“working memory deficit is a common symptom in many disorders.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective.
“Cognitive training normally requires several sessions to be effective”
The paper relies on this without support.
Engagement will be the key to collecting high-quality data as cognitive research moves out of the laboratory and onto personal computers and mobile devices.
“As cognitive research begins to move out of the laboratory and onto personal computers and mobile devices, engagement will be the key to collecting high-quality data.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Those authors found improvements in time management and planning/organization, and a reduction in hyperactivity symptoms in a group of students with ADHD who received an SG intervention.”
From Serious Games and Their Effect Improving Attention in Students with Learning Disabilities (2019) · cites this paper as [16]
In the citing paper
“These results are in line with previous research stating that playing videogames can increase concentration and other cognitive variables, such as processing speed or visual discrimination [12,13,14,15,16].”
From Serious Games and Their Effect Improving Attention in Students with Learning Disabilities (2019) · cites this paper as [16]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: r (22) = .35, p < .05
MinorThe paper reports p < .05 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .094 (two-tailed). The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.
Reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .094
“r (22) = .35, P<.05”
p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: r (22)=.60, p < .001
MinorThe paper reports p < .001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .002 (two-tailed). The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.
Reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002
“r (22)=.60, P<.001”
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upr(22) = 0.6reported p < .001 · recomputed p = .002
“r (22)=.60, p < .001”
- Doesn’t add upr(22) = 0.35reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .094
“r (22) = .35, p < .05”
- Consistentr(58) = 0.55reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“r (58)=.55, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Trapp study has conflicting publication years
MinorTable 1 dates the Trapp et al study to 2008, while its matching reference lists BMC Psychiatry 2013.
“| Trapp et al, 2008 [19] | Cognitive remediation improves cognition and good cognitive performance increases time to relapse—results of a 5-year catamnestic study in schizophrenia patients | Xcog | Training |”
“19. Trapp W Landgrebe Michael Hoesl Katharina Lautenbacher Stefan Gallhofer Bernd Günther Wilfried Hajak Goeran Cognitive remediation improves cognition and good cognitive performance increases time to relapse--results of a 5 year catamnestic study in schizophrenia patients BMC Psychiatry 2013 13 184”
Ninaus finding points to a different reference
MinorThe text attributes the working-memory performance finding to Ninaus et al but cites reference 48, which is an essay by Eriksson and colleagues. The Ninaus study is listed as reference 46.
“With Ninaus et al, presenting evidence that gamification can improve overall participant performance in a working memory training task [48]”
“48. Eriksson B Musialik M Wagner J Student essay 2012 08 6 2016-07-08 Gamification - Engaging the Future”
Citations
Cites
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037//0003-066x.55.1.68 · Cited by 54,599 · cited 1×
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
Method(1983) · Cited by 33,192
Moral Identity and Developmental Theory
Lapsley, D. K. (2015) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000435926 · Cited by 3,843
The motivational pull of video games: a self-determination theory approach
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8 · Cited by 3,332 · cited 1×
“One game, Watermons [38], was designed, using Self Determination Theory [50,51], to maximize participant intrinsic motivation and make any motivational effects of game mechanics as apparent as possible.”
MethodReality is Broken Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-6095 · Cited by 2,933 · cited 1×
“By their nature, games present users with difficult challenges to overcome and use narrative structure, complex graphics, strategic elements, and intuitive rules to engage the user [3].”
BackgroundEysenbach, G. (2005) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.7.1.e11 · Cited by 2,524 · cited 1×
“This is a particular problem for Web-based studies where participants can simply close the browser window and drop out of the study the moment they decide it is not worth their time [5].”
BackgroundIs working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028228 · Cited by 1,782 · cited 1×
“Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability [57-59].”
BackgroundVideo game training enhances cognitive control in older adults
Anguera, J. A., Boccanfuso, J., Rintoul, J. L., Al-Hashimi, O., Faraji, F., Janowich, J., Kong, E., Larraburo, Y., Rolle, C., Johnston, E., et al. (2013) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature12486 · Cited by 1,666 · cited 2×
“…of treated cases with bulimia nervosa Fagundo et al, 2013 [29] Training Neuroracer Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults Anguera et al, 2013 [30] Training Braingame Brian A pilot study of the efficacy of a computerized executive functioning remediation training with…”
BackgroundBoyle, E. A., Hainey, T., Connolly, T. M., Gray, G., Earp, J., Ott, M., Lim, T., Ninaus, M., Ribeiro, C., & Pereira, J. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003 · Cited by 1,133 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, using games as a vehicle to deliver cognitive training may also be advantageous simply because video games appear to have positive effects on a number of outcomes, including working memory, attentional capacity, problem solving, motivation, emotional control, and prosocial behaviors [6].”
MethodDopamine and the regulation of cognition and attention
Nieoullon, A. (2002) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(02)00011-4 · Cited by 1,131 · cited 1×
“However, it is thought that playing video games can facilitate the release of extrastriatal dopamine, which plays a role in focusing attention and heightening arousal [68,69]; this may improve player performance and motivation.”
BackgroundShort- and long-term benefits of cognitive training
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1103228108 · Cited by 769 · cited 1×
“Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability [57-59].”
BackgroundDopamine transporter density in patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Dougherty, D. D., Bonab, A. A., Spencer, T. J., Rauch, S. L., Madras, B. K., & Fischman, A. J. (1999) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(99)04030-1 · Cited by 684 · cited 15×
“Specifically, we found 6 studies (covering 4 games) designed for people with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).”
BackgroundInfluentialDopamine D4 receptor gene polymorphism is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
LaHoste, G. J., Swanson, J. M., Wigal, S. B., Glabe, C. G., Wigal, T. L., King, N., & Kennedy, J. L. (1996) · PubMed · Cited by 678
BURGESS, P. W., ALDERMAN, N., FORBES, C., COSTELLO, A., M-A.COATES, L., DAWSON, D. R., ANDERSON, N. D., GILBERT, S. J., DUMONTHEIL, I., & CHANNON, S. (2006) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617706060310 · Cited by 663 · cited 1×
“In a similar vein, cognitive assessment has been accused of being ecologically invalid [60].”
BackgroundActive Video Games to Promote Physical Activity in Children and Youth: A Systematic Review
Biddiss, E., & Irwin, J. (2010) · Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine · doi:10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.104 · Cited by 562 · cited 1×
“Also related but beyond our scope is the body of work on the effects of video games on behavior (see [14,15] for reviews).”
BackgroundEnumeration versus multiple object tracking: the case of action video game players
Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2006) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2005.10.004 · Cited by 560 · cited 1×
“There is good evidence that video game players outperform nongamers on tests of working memory [52] visual attention [53,54] and processing speed [55,56].”
BackgroundGamification: What It Is and Why It Matters to Digital Health Behavior Change Developers
Cugelman, B. (2013) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/games.3139 · Cited by 531
Increasing Speed of Processing With Action Video Games
Dye, M. W. G., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2009) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01660.x · Cited by 521
Role of Video Games in Improving Health-Related Outcomes
Primack, B. A., Carroll, M. V., McNamara, M., Klem, M. L., King, B. E., Rich, M., Chan, C. W., & Nayak, S. (2012) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2012.02.023 · Cited by 521
Toward an understanding of flow in video games
Cowley, B. U., Charles, D. K., Black, M. M., & Hickey, R. J. (2008) · Computers in entertainment · doi:10.1145/1371216.1371223 · Cited by 479 · cited 1×
“One explanation for the massive popularity of games is that they can provide easy access to a sense of engagement and self-efficacy which reality may not deliver [2].”
BackgroundDopamine: a key regulator to adapt action, emotion, motivation and cognition
Nieoullon, A., & Coquerel, A. (2003) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/00019052-200312002-00002 · Cited by 315 · cited 1×
“However, it is thought that playing video games can facilitate the release of extrastriatal dopamine, which plays a role in focusing attention and heightening arousal [68,69]; this may improve player performance and motivation.”
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Opwis, K., & Tuch, A. N. (2013) · Proceedings of the First International Conference on Gameful Design, Research, and Applications · doi:10.1145/2583008.2583017 · Cited by 314
Dovis, S., Van der Oord, S., Wiers, R. W., & Prins, P. J. M. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0121651 · Cited by 272
Analysis and application of gamification
Aparicio, A. F., Vela, F. L. G., Sanchez, J. L. G., & Montes, J. L. (2012) · International Conference on Human Computer Interaction (Interacción) · doi:10.1145/2379636.2379653 · Cited by 265 · cited 1×
“There have, however, been several reviews of the concepts core to gamification and how they can be applied successfully (see [11-13]).”
BackgroundColzato, L. S., van den Wildenberg, W. P. M., Zmigrod, S., & Hommel, B. (2013) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-012-0415-2 · Cited by 256 · cited 1×
“There is good evidence that video game players outperform nongamers on tests of working memory [52] visual attention [53,54] and processing speed [55,56].”
BackgroundPrins, P. J. M., Dovis, S., Ponsioen, A., ten Brink, E., & van der Oord, S. (2011) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0206 · Cited by 249 · cited 3×
“Training Supermecha Does computerized working memory training with game elements enhance motivation and training efficacy in children with ADHD? Prins, Dovis, Ponsioen, ten Brink, and van der Oord, 2011 [24]”
BackgroundResultManera, V., Petit, P., Derreumaux, A., Orvieto, I., Romagnoli, M., Lyttle, G., David, R., & Robert, P. H. (2015) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2015.00024 · Cited by 220 · cited 2×
“Both Kitchen and Cooking “Kitchen and cooking,” a serious game for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: a pilot study Manera et al, 2015 [45]”
BackgroundLim, C. G., Lee, T.-S. W., Guan, C., Fung, D. S. S., Zhao, Y., Teng, S. S. W., Zhang, H., & Krishnan, K. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0046692 · Cited by 218 · cited 1×
“Training Cogoland A brain-computer interface based attention training program for treating attention deficit hyperactivity disorder Lim et al, 2012 [25]”
MethodDennis, T. A., & O’Toole, L. J. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614522228 · Cited by 197 · cited 1×
“Training ABMTApp Mental health on the go: Effects of a gamified attention-bias modification mobile application in trait-anxious adults O’Toole and Dennis, 2014 [40]”
Designing gamification: creating gameful and playful experiences
Deterding, S., Björk, S. L., Nacke, L. E., Dixon, D., & Lawley, E. (2013) · CHI '13 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2468356.2479662 · Cited by 192 · cited 3×
“There have, however, been several reviews of the concepts core to gamification and how they can be applied successfully (see [11-13]).”
Backgroundde Vries, M., Prins, P. J. M., Schmand, B. A., & Geurts, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12324 · Cited by 188
Dovis, S., Van der Oord, S., Wiers, R. W., & Prins, P. J. M. (2012) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9601-8 · Cited by 165 · cited 3×
“Dovis et al [22] studied whether different types of incentive could normalize ADHD children’s performance on working memory training.”
BackgroundCognitive enhancement in video game players: The role of video game genre
Dobrowolski, P., Hanusz, K., Sobczyk, B., Skorko, M., & Wiatrow, A. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.051 · Cited by 152
van der Oord, S., Ponsioen, A. J. G. B., Geurts, H. M., Brink, E. L. T., & Prins, P. J. M. (2014) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054712453167 · Cited by 148
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“It is possible that even this minimal gamification was enough to induce increased motivation and that adding “distracting” game elements such as persistent score display may have a negative impact on performance by inducing unneeded stress or new cognitive demands [34].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCrowdsourcing for Cognitive Science – The Utility of Smartphones
Brown, H. R., Zeidman, P., Smittenaar, P., Adams, R. A., McNab, F., Rutledge, R. B., & Dolan, R. J. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0100662 · Cited by 129
Lee, T.-S. W., Goh, S. J. A., Quek, S. Y., Phillips, R., Guan, C., Cheung, Y. B., Feng, L., Teng, S. S. W., Wang, C. C., Chin, Z. Y., et al. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0079419 · Cited by 119 · cited 2×
“…brain-computer interface based cognitive training system for healthy elderly: A randomised control pilot study for usability and preliminary efficacy Lee et al, 2013 [35] Testing Visual Search Intrinsic motivation and attentional capture from gamelike features in a visual search task Miranda and…”
BackgroundMethodPrins, P. J. M., Brink, E. T., Dovis, S., Ponsioen, A., Geurts, H. M., de Vries, M., & van der Oord, S. (2013) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2013.0004 · Cited by 116 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, patients with ADHD react differently from controls to rewards and feedback: they prefer strong reinforcement and immediate feedback, as well as clear goals and objectives, all of which can easily be delivered in a gamelike environment [22,24,62].”
BackgroundEfficacy of cognitive training interventions in hyperactive children: A critical review
Abikoff, H. (1985) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/0272-7358(85)90005-4 · Cited by 113 · cited 1×
“Cognitive training has often suffered from a lack of transferability [57-59].”
BackgroundDeRight, J., & Jorgensen, R. S. (2015) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2014.989267 · Cited by 93 · cited 1×
“There is evidence that a lack of participant motivation has a negative impact on the quality of data collected [4], with tasks commonly being viewed as too boring and repetitive for participant attention to be sustained.”
BackgroundGame elements improve performance in a working memory training task
Ninaus, M., Pereira, G., Stefitz, R., Prada, R., Paiva, A., Neuper, C., & Wood, G. (2015) · International Journal of Serious Games · doi:10.17083/ijsg.v2i1.60 · Cited by 86 · cited 2×
“…disease: a pilot study Manera et al, 2015 [45] Training GAME Game elements improve performance in a working memory training task Ninaus et al, 2015 [46] Testing VAP-M On the comparison of a novel serious game and electroencephalography biomarkers for early dementia screening Tarnanas et al, 2015…”
BackgroundIntrinsic motivation and attentional capture from gamelike features in a visual search task
Miranda, A. T., & Palmer, E. M. (2014) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0357-7 · Cited by 86 · cited 5×
“Our review found no evidence to support that gamified tests can be used to improve data quality, either by reducing between-subject noise or by improving participant performance, and there were some indications that it may actually worsen it [17,18,34,36].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialImplicit and explicit training in the mitigation of cognitive bias through the use of a serious game
Dunbar, N. E., Miller, C. H., Adame, B. J., Elizondo, J., Wilson, S. N., Lane, B. L., Kauffman, A. A., Bessarabova, E., Jensen, M. L., Straub, S. K., et al. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.053 · Cited by 83 · cited 2×
“…2014 [34] Training MACBETH Implicit and explicit training in the mitigation of cognitive bias through the use of a serious game Dunbar et al, 2013 [8] Training Card-Pairing A brain-computer interface based cognitive training system for healthy elderly: A randomised control pilot study for…”
BackgroundMethodVideo games as research tools: The Space Fortress game
Donchin, E. (1995) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03204735 · Cited by 80 · cited 1×
“We excluded commercially available video games (ie, “off-the-shelf” games) as well as gamelike tasks that have been in use for many years, such as Space Fortress (see [16] for a review).”
Evaluating efficacy and validating games for health
Kato, P. M. (2012) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2012.1017 · Cited by 79 · cited 1×
“Regarding cognitive training, ideally gamified training should be treated as an intervention and so the current gold standard of a blinded randomized control trial is appropriate [71].”
Fagundo, A. B., Santamaría, J. J., Forcano, L., Giner‐Bartolomé, C., Jiménez‐Múrcia, S., Sánchez, I., Granero, R., Ben‐Moussa, M., Magnenat‐Thalmann, N., Konstantas, D., et al. (2013) · European Eating Disorders Review · doi:10.1002/erv.2259 · Cited by 79 · cited 2×
“…2013 [28] Training Playmancer Video game therapy for emotional regulation and impulsivity control in a series of treated cases with bulimia nervosa Fagundo et al, 2013 [29] Training Neuroracer Video game training enhances cognitive control in older adults Anguera et al, 2013 [30] Training…”
BackgroundMethodGamberini, L., Martino, F., Seraglia, B., Spagnolli, A., Fabregat, M. E., Ibáñez, F. S., Alcañíz, M., & Andrés, J. M. (2009) · Conference on Human System Interactions · doi:10.1109/hsi.2009.5090973 · Cited by 74 · cited 1×
“Testing Eldergames Eldergames project: An innovative mixed reality table-top solution to preserve cognitive functions in elderly people Gamberini et al, 2009 [20]”
MethodExploring elements of fun to motivate youth to do cognitive bias modification
Boendermaker, W. J., Boffo, M., & Wiers, R. W. (2015) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2015.0053 · Cited by 71 · cited 1×
“This lack of coherence in the field is partly due to poor definition of terms; for example, the gamelike tasks covered in this review could be described as “serious games,” “gamelike,” “gamified,” “games with a purpose,” “gamed-up,” or simply “computer based” [7-10].”
BackgroundAssessing the validity of computer-game-like tests of processing speed and working memory
McPherson, J., & Burns, N. R. (2008) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.40.4.969 · Cited by 69 · cited 4×
“However, a second paper detailing 2 experiments which aimed to replicate the previous finding found that Space Code’s correlations with measures of working memory, visuospatial ability, and processing speed were not stable [18].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialCompeting or aiming to be average?: normification as a means of engaging digital volunteers
Preist, C., Massung, E., & Coyle, D. (2014) · Proceedings of the 17th ACM conference on Computer supported cooperative work & social computing · doi:10.1145/2531602.2531615 · Cited by 65 · cited 1×
“Furthermore, despite concerns that some commonly used game mechanics might reduce participant motivation [72] (such as by having a visibly low score [73]), we saw no evidence that this was the case.”
BackgroundSelf-citationGamelike features might not improve data
Hawkins, G. E., Rae, B., Nesbitt, K. V., & Brown, S. D. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0264-3 · Cited by 61 · cited 7×
“This lack of coherence in the field is partly due to poor definition of terms; for example, the gamelike tasks covered in this review could be described as “serious games,” “gamelike,” “gamified,” “games with a purpose,” “gamed-up,” or simply “computer based” [7-10].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialDörrenbächer, S., Müller, P. M., Tröger, J., & Kray, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01275 · Cited by 59 · cited 4×
“Training Watermons Dissociable effects of game elements on motivation and cognition in a task switching training in middle childhood Dörrenbächer et al, 2014 [38]”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAalbers, T., Baars, M. A. E., Olde Rikkert, M. G. M., & Kessels, R. P. C. (2013) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.2860 · Cited by 59 · cited 4×
“[25] Testing Groundskeeper A machine learning-based analysis of game data for attention deficit hyper-activity disorder assessment Heller et al, 2013 [26] Testing EM-Ants and Ghost Trap Gamelike features might not improve data Hawkins et al, 2013 [9] Both Tap the Hedgehog In-game assessment and training of nonverbal c…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKok, A. J., Kong, T. Y., & Bernard-Opitz, V. (2002) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361302006002005 · Cited by 55
Heller, M. D., Roots, K., Srivastava, S., Schumann, J., Srivastava, J., & Hale, T. S. (2013) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2013.0058 · Cited by 53 · cited 2×
“Testing Groundskeeper A machine learning-based analysis of game data for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder assessment Heller et al, 2013 [26]”
MethodTarnanas, I., Laskaris, N., Tsolaki, M., Müri, R. M., Nef, T., & Mosimann, U. P. (2014) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08939-3_11 · Cited by 49 · cited 2×
“Testing VAP-M On the comparison of a novel serious game and electroencephalography biomarkers for early dementia screening Tarnanas et al, 2015 [47]”
BackgroundMethodMonitoring the Early Signs of Cognitive Decline in Elderly by Computer Games: An MRI Study
Sirály, E., Szabó, Á., Szita, B., Kovács, V., Fodor, Z., Marosi, C., Salacz, P., Hidasi, Z., Maros, Hanák, P., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117918 · Cited by 49 · cited 1×
“Six games were designed to be suitable for the elderly, who may not be familiar working with a mouse and keyboard [49].”
BackgroundDissociating distractor-filtering at encoding and during maintenance.
McNab, F., & Dolan, R. J. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/a0036013 · Cited by 49
Delisle, J., & Braun, C. M. J. (2011) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acr043 · Cited by 49 · cited 4×
“Nevertheless, as Delisle and Braun discuss [23], we must be cautious that liberal use of game mechanics does not reverse the very deficit we are hoping to measure.”
BackgroundInfluentialDeveloping a serious game for cognitive assessment: choosing settings and measuring performance
Tong, T., & Chignell, M. (2014) · Proceedings of the Second International Symposium of Chinese CHI · doi:10.1145/2592235.2592246 · Cited by 48 · cited 2×
“Testing Whack-a-mole Developing a serious game for cognitive assessment: choosing settings and measuring performance Tong and Chignell, 2014 [33]”
BackgroundMethodIn-game assessment and training of nonverbal cognitive skills using TagTiles
Verhaegh, J., Fontijn, W., Aarts, E., & Resing, W. C. M. (2012) · Personal and Ubiquitous Computing · doi:10.1007/s00779-012-0527-0 · Cited by 44 · cited 3×
“[25] Testing Groundskeeper A machine learning-based analysis of game data for attention deficit hyper-activity disorder assessment Heller et al, 2013 [26] Testing EM-Ants and Ghost Trap Gamelike features might not improve data Hawkins et al, 2013 [9] Both Tap the Hedgehog In-game assessment and training of nonverbal c…”
BackgroundMethodGs Invaders: Assessing a computer game-like test of processing speed
McPherson, J., & Burns, N. R. (2007) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03192982 · Cited by 43 · cited 4×
“The results of references [9,17,18,38], show that gamified tasks can be used to improve motivation, while still maintaining a scientifically valid task.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTrapp, W., Landgrebe, M., Hösl, K. M., Lautenbacher, S., Gallhofer, B., Günther, W., & Hajak, G. (2013) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-13-184 · Cited by 43 · cited 1×
“Training Xcog Cognitive remediation improves cognition and good cognitive performance increases time to relapse—results of a 5-year catamnestic study in schizophrenia patients Trapp et al, 2008 [19]”
BackgroundAtkins, S. M., Sprenger, A. M., Colflesh, G. J. H., Briner, T. L., Buchanan, J. B., Chavis, S. E., Chen, S.-Y., Iannuzzi, G. L., Kashtelyan, V., Dowling, E., et al. (2014) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000262 · Cited by 39 · cited 3×
“[25] Testing Groundskeeper A machine learning-based analysis of game data for attention deficit hyper-activity disorder assessment Heller et al, 2013 [26] Testing EM-Ants and Ghost Trap Gamelike features might not improve data Hawkins et al, 2013 [9] Both Tap the Hedgehog In-game assessment and training of nonverbal c…”
BackgroundMethodTENI: A comprehensive battery for cognitive assessment based on games and technology
Tenorio Delgado, M., Arango Uribe, P., Aparicio Alonso, A., & Rosas Díaz, R. (2016) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2014.977241 · Cited by 34 · cited 2×
“Testing TENI TENI: A comprehensive battery for cognitive assessment based on games and technology Tenorio Delgado, Arango Uribe, Aparicio Alonso, and Rosas Diaz, 2014 [41]”
BackgroundMethodEffects of Action Video Game Experience on Change Detection
Durlach, P. J., Kring, J. P., & Bowens, L. D. (2009) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995600802565694 · Cited by 29 · cited 1×
“There is good evidence that video game players outperform nongamers on tests of working memory [52] visual attention [53,54] and processing speed [55,56].”
BackgroundEffects of a Serious Game Training on Cognitive Functions in Older Adults
Kim, K. M., Choi, Y., You, H., Na, D. L., Yoh, M., Park, J., Seo, J., & Ko, M.-H. (2015) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.13304 · Cited by 24 · cited 1×
“Training Smart Harmony Effects of a serious game training on cognitive functions in older adults Kim et al, 2015 [44]”
BackgroundGamification, Serious Games, Ludic Simulation, and other Contentious Categories
Dubbels, B. R. (2013) · International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations · doi:10.4018/jgcms.2013040101 · Cited by 22 · cited 1×
“This lack of coherence in the field is partly due to poor definition of terms; for example, the gamelike tasks covered in this review could be described as “serious games,” “gamelike,” “gamified,” “games with a purpose,” “gamed-up,” or simply “computer based” [7-10].”
BackgroundNeuropsychological testing through a Nintendo Wii console.
Gamberini, L., Cardullo, S., Seraglia, B., & Bordin, A. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 10
Verhaegh, J., Fontijn, W. F. J., & Resing, W. C. M. (2013) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.026 · Cited by 7 · cited 1×
“However, sample correlations from some of the simpler validation studies suggest intertask correlations of 0.45-0.60 [28,37,39,63].”
BackgroundInfluential
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 71 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Gamberini, L, 2010, Stud Health Technol Inform, 154, 29
- 1996, Mol Psychiatry, 1, 121
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A systematic review of gamification in e-Health
Sardi, L., Idri, A., & Fernández‐Alemán, J. L. (2017) · Journal of Biomedical Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.jbi.2017.05.011 · Cited by 1,041
Pallavicini, F., Ferrari, A., & Mantovani, F. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02127 · Cited by 238
“Although several excellent reviews and meta-analyses have investigated the effect of video games training as tools for enhancing individuals well-being, in particular regarding cognitive and emotive enhancement (e.g., Boyle et al., 2016; Lumsden et al., 2016), most of them specifically focused on the effects of digita…”
BackgroundThe Effects of Gamification in Online Learning Environments: A Systematic Literature Review
Antonaci, A., Klemke, R., & Specht, M. M. (2019) · Informatics · doi:10.3390/informatics6030032 · Cited by 237
The effects of gamification on computerized cognitive training: Systematic review and meta-analysis
Vermeir, J. F., White, M. J., Johnson, D., Crombez, G., & Van Ryckeghem, D. M. L. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/18644 · Cited by 172
“Gamification was defined and operationalized as the use of digital game elements (eg, points, avatars) in nonentertainment settings to increase motivation and engagement [10,11].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPotential Applications of Social Robots in Robot-Assisted Interventions for Social Anxiety
Rasouli, S., Gupta, G., Nilsen, E. S., & Dautenhahn, K. (2022) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-021-00851-0 · Cited by 159
Metadata
- Authors
- Lumsden, J., Edwards, E. A., Lawrence, N. S., Coyle, D., & Munafò, M. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Bristol (GB)
- Queen Mary University of London (GB)
- University of Exeter (GB)
- University College Dublin (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Lumsden, Jim
- Venue
- JMIR Serious Games
- Publisher
- JMIR Publications Inc.
- Published
- 2016-07-15
- Volume
- 4
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- e11
- ISSN
- 2291-9279 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4967181
- OpenAlex
- W2465353856
- Semantic Scholar
- 4f2c6684a94d57d5dc731e41341a6b0109778428
- Cited by
- 555
- References
- 71
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 74 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 61 · 2021: 56 · 2020: 70 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 37 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 6
- FWCI
- 6.76
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- JMIR Serious Games (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Research Exeter (University of Exeter) (acceptedVersion)
- Arrow@dit (Dublin Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Bristol Research (University of Bristol) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Repository UCD (University College Dublin) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (092731)
- United Kingdom Clinical Research Collaboration
- Cancer Research UK
- National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR-IPF-16-10-04)
- British Heart Foundation
- University of Bristol (092731, MC_UU_12013/6)
- Medical Research Council (MC_UU_12013, MR/K023195/1, 092731, MC_UU_12013/6)
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/G007489/1, 1325188)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- gamification, cognitive assessment, cognitive training, participant engagement, working memory, executive function, game elements, task validation, motivation, neuropsychological assessment
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