The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: 50th Anniversary Edition
Open accessAbstract
A good book may have the power to change the way we see the world, but a great book actually becomes part of our daily consciousness, pervading our thinking to the point that we take it for granted, and we forget how provocative and challenging its ideas once were-and still are. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions is that kind of book. When it was first published in 1962, it was a landmark event in the history and philosophy of science. And fifty years later, it still has many lessons to teach. With The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn challenged long-standing linear notions of scientific progress, arguing that transformative ideas don't arise from the day-to-day, gradual process of experimentation and data accumulation, but that revolutions in those breakthrough moments that disrupt accepted thinking and offer unanticipated ideas, occur outside of normal science, as he called it. Though Kuhn was writing when physics ruled the sciences, his ideas on how scientific revolutions bring order to the anomalies that amass over time in research experiments are still instructive in our biotech age. This new edition of Kuhn's essential work in the history of science includes an insightful introductory essay by Ian Hacking that clarifies terms popularized by Kuhn, including paradigm and incommensurability, and applies Kuhn's ideas to the science of today. Usefully keyed to the separate sections of the book, Hacking's essay provides important background information as well as a contemporary context. Newly designed, with an expanded index, this edition will be eagerly welcomed by the next generation of readers seeking to understand the history of our perspectives on science.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Paradigm shifts occur when a dominant paradigm can no longer incorporate anomalies or contradictions.
“Paradigm shifts occur when a dominant paradigm can no longer incorporate anomalies or contradictions (Kuhn, 2012).”
From EU Climate diplomacy between justice, order and systemic change (2026) · cites this paper as Kuhn, 2012
PPI is at a pre-paradigm stage in its development and recognition.
“Such evolution is particularly important for GRIPP2 because PPI is at a pre-paradigm stage in its development and recognition, reflecting Kuhn’s conceptualisation of how science changes over time with significant paradigm shifts that generate new ways of thinking [20].”
From GRIPP2 reporting checklists: tools to improve reporting of patient and public involvement in research (2017) · cites this paper as [20]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria
Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. (1990) · Qualitative Sociology · doi:10.1007/bf00988593 · Cited by 11,133 · see citing works
Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises
Nickerson, R. S. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.2.175 · Cited by 7,267 · see citing works
From sectoral systems of innovation to socio-technical systems
Geels, F. W. (2004) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.015 · Cited by 4,098 · see citing works
Guidance on Conducting a Systematic Literature Review
Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2019) · Journal of Planning Education and Research · doi:10.1177/0739456x17723971 · Cited by 3,467 · see citing works
Unruh, G. C. (2000) · Energy Policy · doi:10.1016/s0301-4215(00)00070-7 · Cited by 3,304 · see citing works
Staniszewska, S., Brett, J., Simera, I., Seers, K., Mockford, C., Goodlad, S., Altman, D. G., Moher, D., Barber, R., Denegri, S., et al. (2017) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.j3453 · Cited by 1,983 · see citing works
Staniszewska, S., Brett, J., Simera, I., Seers, K., Mockford, C., Goodlad, S., Altman, D. G., Moher, D., Barber, R., Denegri, S., et al. (2017) · Research Involvement and Engagement · doi:10.1186/s40900-017-0062-2 · Cited by 1,643 · see citing works
Chinn, C. A., & Brewer, W. F. (1993) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543063001001 · Cited by 1,393 · see citing works
Cognitive Fit: A Theory‐Based Analysis of the Graphs Versus Tables Literature*
Vessey, I. (1991) · Decision Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5915.1991.tb00344.x · Cited by 1,263 · see citing works
Paradox research in management science: Looking back to move forward
Schad, J., Lewis, M. W., Raisch, S., & Smith, W. K. (2016) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520.2016.1162422 · Cited by 1,385 · see citing works
Peer-review practices of psychological journals: The fate of published articles, submitted again
Peters, D. P., & Ceci, S. J. (1982) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00011183 · Cited by 1,079 · see citing works
The Burden of Knowledge and the “Death of the Renaissance Man”: Is Innovation Getting Harder?
JONES, B. F. (2009) · Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-937x.2008.00531.x · Cited by 1,058 · see citing works
Punctuated equilibrium comes of age
Gould, S. J., & Eldredge, N. (1993) · Nature · doi:10.1038/366223a0 · Cited by 957 · see citing works
Inventing Temperature: Measurement and Scientific Progress
Chang, H. (2004) · doi:10.1093/0195171276.001.0001 · Cited by 883 · see citing works
Patient empowerment: myths and misconceptions
Anderson, R. M., & Funnell, M. M. (2010) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2009.07.025 · Cited by 846 · see citing works
The Relationship Context of Human Behavior and Development
Reis, H. T., Collins, W. A., & Berscheid, E. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.844 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
Trust and Distrust Definitions: One Bite at a Time
Harrison McKnight, D., & Chervany, N. L. (2001) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/3-540-45547-7_3 · Cited by 747 · see citing works
Scott, P. H., Mortimer, E. F., & Aguiar, O. G. (2006) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.20131 · Cited by 719 · see citing works
Pohl, C., Rist, S., Zimmermann, A., Fry, P., Gurung, G. S., Schneider, F., Speranza, C. I., Kiteme, B., Boillat, S., Serrano, E., et al. (2010) · Science and Public Policy · doi:10.3152/030234210x496628 · Cited by 555 · see citing works
Patient empowerment: reflections on the challenge of fostering the adoption of a new paradigm
Anderson, R. M., & Funnell, M. M. (2005) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2004.05.008 · Cited by 551 · see citing works
Second language acquisition: Theoretical and experimental issues in contemporary research
Epstein, S. D., Flynn, S., & Martohardjono, G. (1996) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00043521 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Can Large Language Models Transform Computational Social Science?
Ziems, C., Held, W., Shaikh, O., Chen, J., Zhang, Z., & Yang, D. (2024) · Computational Linguistics · doi:10.1162/coli_a_00502 · Cited by 585 · see citing works
Frank, K. A., Maroulis, S. J., Duong, M. Q., & Kelcey, B. M. (2013) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373713493129 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
The WPA-Lancet psychiatry commission on the future of psychiatry
Bhugra, D., Tasman, A., Pathare, S., Priebe, S., Smith, S., Torous, J., Arbuckle, M. R., Langford, A., Alarcón, R. D., Chiu, H. F. K., et al. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30333-4 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
A Proposal to Speed Translation of Healthcare Research Into Practice
Kessler, R., & Glasgow, R. E. (2011) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2011.02.023 · Cited by 376 · see citing works
The Border Between Seeing and Thinking
Block, N. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197622223.001.0001 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Torous, J., & Roberts, L. W. (2017) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.0262 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Science in the age of large language models
Birhane, A., Kasirzadeh, A., Leslie, D., & Wachter, S. (2023) · Nature Reviews Physics · doi:10.1038/s42254-023-00581-4 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Stein, D. J., Shoptaw, S. J., Vigo, D. V., Lund, C., Cuijpers, P., Bantjes, J., Sartorius, N., & Maj, M. (2022) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20998 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Storyline approach to the construction of regional climate change information
Shepherd, T. G. (2019) · Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspa.2019.0013 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Trustworthy Online Controlled Experiments: A Practical Guide to A/B Testing
Kohavi, R., Tang, D., & Xu, Y. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781108653985 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
A brief history of human brain mapping
Raichle, M. E. (2009) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.11.001 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
The Use and Abuse of Models of Disability
Llewellyn, A., & Hogan, K. (2000) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/09687590025829 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
The neuroconnectionist research programme
Doerig, A., Sommers, R. P., Seeliger, K., Richards, B., Ismael, J., Lindsay, G. W., Kording, K. P., Konkle, T., van Gerven, M. A. J., Kriegeskorte, N., et al. (2023) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-023-00705-w · Cited by 233 · see citing works
The sense of should: A biologically-based framework for modeling social pressure
Theriault, J. E., Young, L., & Barrett, L. F. (2021) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2020.01.004 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Introspective physicalism as an approach to the science of consciousness
Jack, A. (2001) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(00)00128-1 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Qualitative research in psychiatry
Whitley, R., & Crawford, M. (2005) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370505000206 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Ketelaar, T., & Ellis, B. J. (2000) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1101_01 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Muris, P., & Otgaar, H. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01363-0 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Community Science, Philosophy of Science, and the Practice of Research
Tebes, J. K. (2005) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-005-3399-x · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Bacile, T. J., Ye, C., & Swilley, E. (2014) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.intmar.2013.12.001 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Reconceiving representation-hungry cognition: an ecological-enactive proposal
Kiverstein, J. D., & Rietveld, E. (2018) · Adaptive Behavior · doi:10.1177/1059712318772778 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
An Interview With Erving Goffman, 1980
Verhoeven, J. C. (1993) · Research on Language and Social Interaction · doi:10.1207/s15327973rlsi2603_5 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
The Effectiveness of Advertising: A Meta-Meta-Analysis of Advertising Inputs and Outcomes
Eisend, M., & Tarrahi, F. (2016) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2016.1185981 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The sense of immortality: On death and the continuity of life.
Lifton, R. J. (1973) · The American Journal of Psychoanalysis · doi:10.1007/bf01872131 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Franz Boas and the Culture Concept in Historical Perspective<sup>1</sup>
STOCKING, G. W. (1966) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00010 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Wasserman, J. A., Clair, J. M., & Wilson, K. L. (2009) · Qualitative Research · doi:10.1177/1468794109106605 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Current Research and Statistical Practices in Sport Science and a Need for Change
Bernards, J., Sato, K., Haff, G., & Bazyler, C. (2017) · Sports · doi:10.3390/sports5040087 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Social Injustice in Surveillance Capitalism
Cinnamon, J. (2017) · Surveillance & Society · doi:10.24908/ss.v15i5.6433 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Bornmann, L. (2017) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-016-9995-x · Cited by 117 · see citing works
"Social" Cognition and Social Cognition: From the Subjective to the Intersubjective
Ickes, W., & Gonzalez, R. (1994) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496494252008 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Hayes, S. C. (2008) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2008.00139.x · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Renal Nerves and Long‐Term Control of Arterial Pressure
Osborn, J. W., & Foss, J. D. (2017) · Comprehensive Physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.c150047 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Luukkonen, T. (1997) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/bf02461121 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
50 Years of “Obedience to Authority”: From Blind Conformity to Engaged Followership
Haslam, S. A., & Reicher, S. D. (2017) · Annual Review of Law and Social Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110316-113710 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Does Passive Social Media Use Harm Well-Being?: An Adversarial Review
Meier, A., & Krause, H.-V. (2023) · Journal of Media Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000358 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Perspectivism, inconsistent models, and contrastive explanation
Chakravartty, A. (2010) · Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A · doi:10.1016/j.shpsa.2010.10.007 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Rasmussen, A., Keatley, E., & Joscelyne, A. (2014) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.015 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Jackson, S. T. (2012) · Quaternary Science Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.05.020 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Reflection-In-Action and Reflection-On-Action
Munby, H. (1989) · Current Issues in Education · doi:10.1353/eac.1989.a592219 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Removal as a Method: A Fourth Wave HCI Approach to Understanding the Experience of Self-Tracking
Homewood, S., Karlsson, A., & Vallgårda, A. (2020) · Proceedings of the 2020 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3357236.3395425 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Nurse practitioners, canaries in the mine of primary care reform
Contandriopoulos, D., Brousselle, A., Breton, M., Sangster-Gormley, E., Kilpatrick, K., Dubois, C.-A., Brault, I., & Perroux, M. (2016) · Health Policy · doi:10.1016/j.healthpol.2016.03.015 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Shunned and Admired: Montessori, Self-Determination, and a Case for Radical School Reform
Lillard, A. S. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09483-3 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Functions of mesolimbic dopamine: changing concepts and shifting paradigms
Salamone, J. D. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0623-9 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Reproducibility failures are essential to scientific inquiry
Redish, A. D., Kummerfeld, E., Morris, R. L., & Love, A. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1806370115 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Greenhalgh, T., Swinglehurst, D., & Stones, R. (2014) · Health Services and Delivery Research · doi:10.3310/hsdr02390 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Measurement, models, and uncertainty
Giordani, A., & Mari, L. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2012.2193695 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Can a machine think (anything new)? Automation beyond simulation
Fazi, M. B. (2019) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-018-0821-0 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“2 The philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn (1962) used the term ‘paradigm’ to refer to the sets of normalising concepts and practices belonging to the science of a particular period of time.”
BackgroundTruth machines: synthesizing veracity in AI language models
Munn, L., Magee, L., & Arora, V. (2024) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-023-01756-4 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Archer, M. S. (2007) · The Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Culture · doi:10.1002/9780470996744.ch2 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Antecedents of Instrumental Interpersonal Help-Seeking: An Integrative Review
Chan, M. E. (2013) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00496.x · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The sensemaking-coevolution-implementation theory of software design
Ralph, P. (2015) · Science of Computer Programming · doi:10.1016/j.scico.2014.11.007 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Watson, S., & Romic, J. (2025) · European Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1177/14749041231221266 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Skogstad, G., & Wilder, M. (2019) · Policy Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11077-019-09351-5 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Cognitive Behavior Therapy at the Crossroads
Blackwell, S. E., & Heidenreich, T. (2021) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1007/s41811-021-00104-y · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Grier, R. A. (2012) · Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making · doi:10.1177/1555343412444606 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Kazman, R., Goldenson, D., Monarch, I., Nichols, W., & Valetto, G. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering · doi:10.1109/tse.2015.2465387 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Mobilising new frontiers in digital transformation research: A problematization review
Ashrafi, A., Constantinides, P., Mehandjiev, N., & Thatcher, J. B. (2025) · Information Systems Journal · doi:10.1111/isj.12531 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Social Capital and Consumer Value Co-Created Within an Online Health Community
Stewart Loane, S., & Webster, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing · doi:10.1080/10495142.2017.1326359 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
The influence of prior belief on scientific thinking
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2002) · The Cognitive Basis of Science · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511613517.011 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Evers, K., Farisco, M., & Pennartz, C. M. A. (2024) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2024.103668 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Choice-supportive bias” in science: Explanation and mitigation
Kafaee, M., Marhamati, H., & Gharibzadeh, S. (2021) · Accountability in Research · doi:10.1080/08989621.2021.1872377 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Challenges and Criticisms in the Field of Spirituality, Religiousness, and Health
Walach, H., & Kohls, N. (2019) · Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-21221-6_3 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Past, Present, and Future States of Political Theory
Hunt, E. M. (2022) · Society · doi:10.1007/s12115-022-00703-1 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
On the possibility of society: Classical sociological thought
Weinstein, D., & Weinstein, M. A. (1982) · Human Studies · doi:10.1007/bf02127663 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Levy, N. (2021) · Bad Beliefs · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192895325.003.0005 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
EU Climate diplomacy between justice, order and systemic change
Heinrichs, P. S. (2026) · European Politics and Society · doi:10.1080/23745118.2026.2640010
Oladokun, B. D. (2026) · Journal of Electronic Resources Librarianship · doi:10.1080/1941126x.2026.2700983
Untitled work
Rambelli, F. (2017) · Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
- Authors
- Kuhn, T. S., & Hacking, I.
- Venue
- American Journal of Physics
- Publisher
- University of Chicago Press
- Published
- 2012
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 176-177
- ISSN
- 0002-9505 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2752443224
- Cited by
- 21,170
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 197 · 2025: 556 · 2024: 1008 · 2023: 1204 · 2022: 1261 · 2021: 1229 · 2020: 1245 · 2019: 1160 · 2018: 1008 · 2017: 818 · 2016: 764 · 2015: 708 · 2014: 653 · 2013: 646 · 2012: 532
- FWCI
- 121.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.gbv.de
- Locations
- American Journal of Physics (publishedVersion)
- Princeton University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- University of Chicago Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- Andalas University Repository (Andalas University) (submittedVersion)
- DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy and History of Science
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Philosophy, Science, and History
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History and Philosophy of Science › Diverse Historical and Scientific Studies
- Keywords
- Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, scientific revolution, normal science, paradigm shift, incommensurability, scientific anomalies, scientific progress, history of science, philosophy of science, Ian Hacking
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review