An integrative approach to ancient agricultural terraces and forms of dependency: the case of Cutamalla in the prehispanic Andes

It may state two separate claims as one.

The model's boundaries were not affected by including stratigraphic priors within each architectural unit, but these do offer much more precise estimates for individual contexts.

“Surprisingly, the model's boundaries were not affected by including stratigraphic priors within each architectural unit, but these do offer much more precise estimates for individual contexts.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Our calculations of food supply capacity and labor in the Cutamalla agricultural terrace-settlement system show that Te-07, Te-09, and Te-10 produced yields sufficient to feed ~1,341 people, assuming mixed maize and potato cultivation, while requiring ~110 people to work in these systems for the entire growing season.

“Our calculations of food supply capacity and labor in the Cutamalla agricultural terrace-settlement system show that Te-07, Te-09, and Te-10 produced yields sufficient to feed ~1,341 people, assuming mixed maize and potato cultivation, while requiring ~110 people to work in these systems for the entire growing season.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Mixed maize and potato cultivation is assumed for the food supply capacity calculation in systems Te-07, Te-09, and Te-10.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Based on slope profile analysis, the average terrace width is 4.8 m, the average terrace wall height is 0.83 m, and the average terrace slope is 9.49°, although values vary considerably between individual terraces.

“Based on the slope profile analysis, the average terrace width is 4.8 m, the average terrace wall height is 0.83 m, and the average terrace slope is 9.49°, although the values vary considerably between individual terraces (Figure 4).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The C/N ratios vary between 8.7 and 13.5 (mean = 10.6, σ = 1.2, n = 17) and gradually decrease toward the parent material.

“The C/N ratios vary between 8.7 and 13.5 (mean = 10.6, σ = 1.2, n = 17) and gradually decrease toward the parent material.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The terraces identified are generally very heterogeneous. Larger terraces predominate in flatter areas, smaller terraces on steeper slopes.

“The terraces identified are generally very heterogeneous. Larger terraces predominate in flatter areas, smaller terraces on steeper slopes.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In terms of construction technique, at least two rows of stones were used, with remaining average heights ranging between 0.6 and 1.3 m.

“In terms of construction technique, at least two rows of stones were used, with remaining average heights ranging between 0.6 and 1.3 m.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The site-specific calibration curve had a very minor effect on the results.

“Likewise, the site-specific calibration curve had a very minor effect on the results, but it will be important for more precise chronologies.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The soil structure of all profiles is homogeneous in the upper 30-50 cm and consists of coarse and blocky subangular clods with moderate to strong cohesion.

“The soil structure of all profiles is homogeneous in the upper 30–50 cm and consists of coarse and blocky subangular clods with moderate to strong cohesion.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Phytolith concentrations vary considerably within each profile, with the highest concentrations of up to 4,067,380 phytoliths per 1 g of sediment in terrace profile Te-07.1 and the lowest amounts of only 20,608 phytoliths per 1 g of sediment in soil control profile Te-07.3.

“Phytolith concentrations vary considerably within each profile, with the highest concentrations of up to 4,067,380 phytoliths per 1 g of sediment in terrace profile Te-07.1 and the lowest amounts of only 20,608 phytoliths per 1 g of sediment in soil control profile Te-07.3.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Soil pH generally increases with depth, ranging from 5.8 to 7, being slightly acidic to neutral.

“Soil pH generally increases with depth, ranging from 5.8 to 7, being slightly acidic to neutral.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The terrace agricultural system Te-09 (Ruyruncural) measures ~135 ha and consists of 852 terrace walls with a total length of 68.3 km.

“The terrace agricultural system Te-09 (Ruyruncural) measures ~135 ha and consists of 852 terrace walls with a total length of 68.3 km.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

While Te-07 is a more coherent terrace agricultural system, Te-09 and Te-10 often represent scattered subsystems of terraces.

“While Te-07 is a more coherent terrace agricultural system, Te-09 and Te-10 often represent scattered subsystems of terraces.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Luxury goods such as jewelry are rare at Cutamalla, and the burials discovered so far (n = 5) are rather simple, usually containing only one grave good.

“Luxury goods such as jewelry, however, are rare, and the burials discovered so far (n = 5) are rather simple, usually containing only one grave good such as an obsidian projectile point or, in one case, a shell bead.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The two terrace dates of profiles Te-07.2 and Te-07.4 are very similar, with bimodal distributions.

“The two terrace dates of profiles Te-07.2 and Te-07.4 are very similar, with bimodal distributions.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Based on mapping of the extended area using satellite imagery, the total terrace agricultural system Te-07 measures 32 ha and consists of 2,069 terrace walls with a total length of 68.5 km.

“Based on the mapping of the extended area using satellite imagery, the total terrace agricultural system Te-07 measures 32 ha and consists of 2,069 terrace walls with a total length of 68.5 km (Figures 7–9).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Weathered morphotypes are very common (mean = 34.4%, σ = 14.7%, n = 17) and tend to increase with depth.

“Weathered morphotypes are very common (mean = 34.4%, σ = 14.7%, n = 17) and tend to increase with depth.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The evidence for Cutamalla as an important center includes abundance of agricultural terraces, work areas, obsidian artifacts at all stages of lithic reduction, large quantities of ceramic spindle whorls and camelid skeletal remains.

“This evidence includes the abundance of agricultural terraces, work areas, obsidian artifacts at all stages of the lithic reduction sequence, and large quantities of ceramic spindle whorls and camelid skeletal remains (Reindel and Isla, 2017; Mader, 2019a,b; Mader et al., 2022, 2023a).”

• cites Reindel and Isla, 2017 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Mader, 2019aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mader et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

It may state two separate claims as one.

There is no indication that the walls were built with mortar, mud, and vegetal material, or that the stones were carved.

“There is no indication that the walls were built with mortar, mud, and vegetal material, or that the stones were carved.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In general, slopes increase significantly at the edges of the terraces, while the terraced areas are characterized by low slopes.

“In general, the slopes increase significantly at the edges of the terraces, while the terraced areas are characterized by low slopes.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In terms of phytolith morphotypes, Elongate SUM (mean = 34.7%, σ = 12.4%, n = 17) are the most abundant morphotypes, followed by Pooideae short cell Rondels including Zea mays diagnostic Rondels elongated/wavy top (mean = 14.4%, σ = 7.8%, n = 17), which are slightly decreasing with depth.

“In terms of phytolith morphotypes, Elongate SUM (mean = 34.7%, σ = 12.4%, n = 17) are the most abundant morphotypes, followed by Pooideae short cell Rondels including Zea mays diagnostic Rondels elongated/wavy top (mean = 14.4%, σ = 7.8%, n = 17), which are slightly decreasing with depth (Figure 12).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

We quantified the total cultivated area and terrace characteristics, including average terrace width, average terrace wall height, and average terrace slope.

“Furthermore, we quantified the total cultivated area and terrace characteristics, including average terrace width, average terrace wall height, and average terrace slope.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The terrace walls at Cutamalla are quite eroded and some of them have collapsed.

“The terrace walls at Cutamalla are quite eroded and some of them have collapsed.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The system was also associated with other architectural features such as corrals, boundary walls, and paths.

“The system was also associated with other architectural features such as corrals, boundary walls, and paths.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The flower structures (n = 10) are located in Sector B of the settlement.

“The flower structures (n = 10) are located in Sector B of the settlement (Figure 2).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Roots are abundant in the upper 30-60 cm of the profiles.

“Roots are abundant in the upper 30–60 cm of the profiles.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The architecture of the agricultural terraces in Te-07, Te-09, and Te-10 is very similar and simple, sometimes associated with rather small stone buildings at the margins of terraced fields.

“The architecture of the agricultural terraces in these three systems is very similar and simple, sometimes associated with rather small stone buildings at the margins of terraced fields.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Other short cells of Poaceae, such as Bilobate (mean = 0.6%, σ = 1.0%, n = 17), or Saddle (mean = 0.6%, σ = 1.5%, n = 17), occur frequently.

“Other short cells of Poaceae, such as Bilobate (mean = 0.6%, σ = 1.0%, n = 17), or Saddle (mean = 0.6%, σ = 1.5%, n = 17), occur frequently.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Bayesian model indicates that the starting and ending boundaries of occupation at Cutamalla were ~250 BCE (390-190, 95%) and ~40 BCE (100 BCE-20 CE, 95%).

“The Bayesian model indicates that the starting and ending boundaries of occupation at Cutamalla were ~250 BCE (390–190, 95%) and ~40 BCE (100 BCE–20 CE, 95%; Figure 6).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The terrace agricultural system Te-10 measures ~54 ha, with 1,221 terrace walls and a total length of 62.3 km.

“The terrace agricultural system Te-10 measures ~54 ha, with 1,221 terrace walls and a total length of 62.3 km (Figures 8, 9).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The site's principal occupation lasted only ~190 years (110-340, 95%) or ~7.0 generations (4.0-12.6, 95%), assuming 27-year generations.

“The site's principal occupation lasted only ~190 years (110–340, 95%) or ~7.0 generations (4.0–12.6, 95%), assuming 27-year generations (Wang et al., 2023).”

• cites Wang et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A generation length of 27 years is assumed for converting occupation duration into generations.

It may state two separate claims as one.

The study area in Cutamalla covered by the DEM is 28.46 ha, of which 10.75 ha could be identified as terrace agricultural land, with the maximum slope of the terraces ranging from 20 to 25°.

“The study area in Cutamalla covered by the DEM is 28.46 ha, of which 10.75 ha could be identified as terrace agricultural land (Figure 7), with the maximum slope of the terraces ranging from 20 to 25°.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Our analyses show that the occupation of the Cutamalla settlement and the use of its surrounding agricultural terraces coincided: they were in use for a relatively short period of about 200 years or seven generations (~250-40 BCE) during the Formative Late Paracas and transitional Initial Nasca periods, and there is no evidence for subsequent reuse of this terrace-settlement system.

“Importantly, our analyses show that the occupation of the Cutamalla settlement and the use of its surrounding agricultural terraces coincided: they were in use for a relatively short period of about 200 years or seven generations (~250–40 BCE) during the Formative Late Paracas and transitional Initial Nasca periods, and there is no evidence for subsequent reuse of this terrace-settlement system.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A generation length of 27 years is assumed for converting occupation duration into generations.

It may state two separate claims as one.

We document the wide extent of agricultural terraces around Cutamalla and demonstrate that maize was most likely a major crop grown there.

“We also document the wide extent of agricultural terraces around Cutamalla and demonstrate that maize was most likely a major crop grown there.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The second type of resource dependency concerns dependencies between people, seen in all sorts of work relations, labor exploitation, and beyond.

“the second concerns dependencies between people, seen in all sorts of work relations, labor exploitation, and beyond”

• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The potential extension of the terrace system Te-07 downhill during its utilization, as suggested by the phytolith data, remains uncertain given the available ages.

“The potential extension of the terrace system Te-07 downhill during its utilization, as suggested by the phytolith data, remains uncertain given the available ages.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Cutamalla was an important regional center and economic hub during a very dynamic period characterized by significant population growth and increased violence.

“Cutamalla was an important regional center and economic hub during a very dynamic period characterized by significant population growth and increased violence.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The similar terrace architecture observed in all three agricultural systems implies concurrent use with the Cutamalla settlement occupation.

“although the similar terrace architecture observed in all three agricultural systems implies concurrent use with the Cutamalla settlement occupation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Many settlements and terrace agricultural systems, such as Cutamalla, have been surveyed intensively with a high degree of coverage.

“Many settlements and terrace agricultural systems, such as Cutamalla, have been surveyed intensively with a high degree of coverage.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

We cannot rule out that the earliest terraces were constructed before the main settlement phase; however, this is unlikely due to the absence of evidence supporting such an early occupation at Cutamalla.

“We cannot rule out that the earliest terraces were constructed before the main settlement phase; however, this is unlikely due to the absence of evidence supporting such an early occupation at Cutamalla.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Both of the terrace samples were taken from plow horizons, suggesting that the organic carbon in the soil samples probably originated from the plant mass of the crops cultivated on the terraces.

“Both of these samples were taken from plow horizons, suggesting that the organic carbon in the soil samples probably originated from the plant mass of the crops cultivated on the terraces.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Compared to later Inka terrace agriculture in the Andean region, the terrace-settlement system at Cutamalla was less standardized in terms of architecture, layout, and distribution, which seems logical due to the different political, economic, and socio-cultural context.

“Compared to later Inka terrace agriculture in the Andean region (Kendall and Rodríguez, 2009; Castro et al., 2019; Ortloff, 2019), we want to emphasize that the terrace-settlement system at Cutamalla was less standardized in terms of architecture, layout, and distribution, which seems logical due to the different political, economic, and socio-cultural context.”

• cites Kendall and Rodríguez, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Castro et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ortloff, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Relations of dependency are frequently asymmetrical.

“These relations of dependency are frequently asymmetrical”

• cites Winnebeck et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

An area of 1.32 ha is characterized by very flat, non-terraced terrain outside the settlement areas, which may also have been used for agriculture in the past.

“An area of 1.32 ha is characterized by very flat, non-terraced terrain outside the settlement areas, which may also have been used for agriculture in the past.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

These figures are preliminary estimates that can be refined by future research.

“These figures are preliminary estimates that can be refined by future research.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In general, the Cutamalla terraces show little sign of degradation, which could be due to a short duration of use, long fallow periods, or grazing of animals on the crop stubble.

“In general, the Cutamalla terraces show little sign of degradation, which could be due to a short duration of use (see below), long fallow periods, or grazing of animals on the crop stubble (Nanavati et al., 2016).”

• cites Nanavati et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The first type of resource dependency concerns human dependencies on resources of any kind, including the control of access to those resources.

“The first type concerns human dependencies on resources of any kind, including the control of access to those resources”

• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Different types of resources are linked through dependency relations, and labor can be considered a key component in this analytical framework.

“Second, different types of resources are linked through dependency relations, and labor can be considered a key component in this analytical framework.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Resource dependency entails two elementary types of structural dependency which constantly interact within their particular ecological and socio-cultural contexts.

“Resource dependency was recently defined as entailing two elementary types of structural dependency which constantly interact within their particular ecological and socio-cultural contexts”

• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

The concept of resource dependency understands resources comprehensively, encompassing land, raw materials, food, labor or human resources, knowledge, experience, technology, infrastructure, and forms of investment.

“The concept of resource dependency understands resources in a comprehensive way, using a broad definition which encompasses every kind of resource, including land, raw materials, food, labor or human resources, knowledge, experience, technology, infrastructure, and many forms of investment such as time, money, and other capital.”

• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Key features of the model of economic directness include population growth and the flow of important goods, such as obsidian artifacts and camelid products, from the highlands to the Pacific coastal desert.

“Key features of this model include population growth and the flow of important goods, such as obsidian artifacts and camelid products, from the highlands to the Pacific coastal desert.”

• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Non-monetary traditional forms of Andean labor can be divided into three general categories: ayni, mink'a, and mit'a.

“Non-monetary traditional forms of Andean labor can be divided into three general categories: ayni, mink'a, and mit'a (in Quechua), although the terms may vary regionally”

• cites Erickson, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Sammells, 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Labor and dependency relations, particularly at an interpersonal level, are difficult to determine based on the archaeological record alone and without any direct written sources.

“Labor and dependency relations, in particular at an interpersonal level, are difficult to determine based on the archaeological record alone and without any direct written sources.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Radiocarbon samples allow placing the terraces in time and comparing chronologies to nearby residential occupations at the Cutamalla settlement.

“Radiocarbon samples allow us to place the terraces in time and to compare chronologies to nearby residential occupations at the Cutamalla settlement.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The final validation of mapping results will require pedestrian surveys.

“As a result, the final validation of mapping results will require pedestrian surveys.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Since there are no direct written records from prehispanic times, interdisciplinary archaeological research is necessary to examine forms of dependency and labor in the ancient Andes, particularly for periods before the Inka Late Horizon (1450-1532 CE).

“Since there are no direct written records from prehispanic times, interdisciplinary archaeological research is necessary to examine forms of dependency and labor in the ancient Andes, in particular for periods before the Inka Late Horizon (1450–1532 CE).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Asymmetrical dependency comprises phenomena of coercion such as tributary labor, servitude, and slavery.

“asymmetrical dependency comprises phenomena of coercion such as tributary labor, servitude, and—perhaps its strongest form—slavery”

• cites Winnebeck et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Canals for irrigation were not identified by field surveys, suggesting rainfed agriculture.

“Canals for irrigation were not identified by our field surveys, suggesting rainfed agriculture.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

We manually removed one early outlier (Hd-26861) after unsuccessful attempts to include it with a charcoal outlier model.

“We manually removed one early outlier (Hd-26861) after unsuccessful attempts to include it with a charcoal outlier model (Bronk Ramsey, 2009b).”

• cites Bronk Ramsey, 2009bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The construction, use, and maintenance of terrace agricultural systems in the prehispanic Andes unavoidably involved human labor and different degrees of socio-political-economic dependencies among people.

“The construction, use, and maintenance of terrace agricultural systems in the prehispanic Andes unavoidably involved human labor and different degrees of socio-political-economic dependencies among people to carry out and organize such activities.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The underlying slightly compacted Ah (30-65 cm) of Te-07.2 is brownish-black in color, has higher humus content and more developed soil structure, and represents the former soil surface before terracing.

“The underlying slightly compacted Ah (30–65 cm) is brownish-black in color and has a higher humus content and a more developed soil structure. It represents the former soil surface before terracing.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Farming 50 ha required the full-time labor of 25 people during the entire cultivation season in the prehispanic central Andes.

“Hastorf (1993) suggests that farming 50 ha required the full-time labor of 25 people during the entire cultivation season in the prehispanic central Andes (see also Costin, 2015).”

• cites Hastorf, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Costin, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

All types of resources are highly relevant in regard to terraced agriculture, with monetary forms of capital most probably being the only exception in prehispanic times.

“All these types of resources are highly relevant in regard to terraced agriculture, monetary forms of capital most probably being the only exception in prehispanic times.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Control over resources involves the organization of labor and may be a source of power and unequal wealth accumulation.

“First, control over such resources involves the organization of labor, and may be a source of power and unequal wealth accumulation.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

A more humid climate and probably forced collective labor were cornerstones of substantial agricultural production in Cutamalla and the region.

“Not only a more humid climate, but probably also forced collective labor were cornerstones of substantial agricultural production in Cutamalla and the region.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Our results provide evidence for intensive terrace cultivation and sophisticated agricultural strategies at Cutamalla.

“Our results provide evidence for intensive terrace cultivation and sophisticated agricultural strategies at Cutamalla.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The largest part of the distributions of the two terrace dates is contemporary with residential occupations at Cutamalla, so residents likely built and used these terraces during the first half of Cutamalla's residential occupation.

“The largest part of their distributions is contemporary with residential occupations at Cutamalla, so we consider it likely that residents built and used these terraces during the first half of Cutamalla's residential occupation (the blue KDE in Figure 6).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In Cutamalla, the terrace soils are characterized by relatively thick and homogeneous plowing horizons overlying the parent material, resulting from prolonged agricultural use, and are therefore different from the naturally formed soils of the area.

“In Cutamalla, the terrace soils are characterized by relatively thick and homogeneous plowing horizons overlying the parent material, resulting from prolonged agricultural use, and are therefore different from the naturally formed soils of the area.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Considering the current data, the possibility that the terraces were cultivated in later periods cannot be ruled out.

“Additionally, considering the current data, the possibility that the terraces were cultivated in later periods cannot be ruled out.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

One possible reason for the shorter occupation is that the culture history does not allow for temporal gaps or overlaps in ceramic styles, which seem quite plausible.

“One possible reason for this is that the culture history does not allow for temporal gaps or overlaps in ceramic styles, which seem quite plausible (Carmichael, 2019).”

• cites Carmichael, 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Relations between humans and resources are structurally asymmetrical because humans and resources represent different kinds of actors with different agencies.

“The relations between humans and resources, depicted in the first and most fundamental type of dependency in the concept of resource dependency, are structurally asymmetrical because humans and resources represent different kinds of actors with different agencies”

• cites Van Oyen, 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

It may state two separate claims as one.

The silty-sandy to loamy nature of the soil provides moderate to good conditions for soil moisture retention, while the C/N ratios generally indicate fertile soils with high-quality organic matter.

“The silty-sandy to loamy nature of the soil provides moderate to good conditions for soil moisture retention, while the C/N ratios generally indicate fertile soils with high-quality organic matter (Zavaleta García, 1992; Blume et al., 2010).”

• cites Zavaleta García, 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Blume et al., 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The outcomes of the DEM analyses were used to validate the mapping derived from satellite imagery.

“Moreover, the outcomes of the DEM analyses were used to validate the mapping derived from satellite imagery.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

One date is near the lower limit of acceptable agreement indices (60%), but its stratigraphic position is modeled correctly so we retain it (MAMS-24515).

“One date is near the lower limit of acceptable agreement indices (60%), but its stratigraphic position is modeled correctly so we retain it (MAMS-24515).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

When local farmers were asked, they said that there was simply not enough water to farm, meaning modern conditions are probably drier than when the terraces were used.

“When we asked local farmers about this, they said that there was simply not enough water to farm, meaning modern conditions are probably drier than when the terraces were used.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

According to these commodity flows, the coast was not only a major consumption area for a variety of goods, but also a region where a group of more powerful and privileged people resided, as evidenced by higher percentages of fine-ware ceramics, high-quality textiles, richer burial goods, and examples of monumental architecture.

“According to these commodity flows, the coast was not only a major consumption area for a variety of goods, but also a region where a group of more powerful and privileged people resided, as evidenced by higher percentages of fine-ware ceramics, high-quality textiles, richer burial goods, and examples of monumental architecture (Mader, 2019a; Tantaleán, 2021; Mader et al., 2023a).”

• cites Mader, 2019aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tantaleán, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mader et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Late Paracas and Initial Nasca periods were not only very dynamic, with significant population growth, violence, and likely forced collective labor, but also had more humid environmental conditions that allowed for these agricultural practices on a large scale in the region.

“The Late Paracas and Initial Nasca periods were not only very dynamic, with significant population growth, violence, and likely forced collective labor, but also had more humid environmental conditions that allowed for these agricultural practices on a large scale in the region.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In general, the Late Paracas and Initial Nasca periods were characterized by a common religious-political ideology and increased violence and conflict in the region, as evidenced by defensive architecture such as walls and ditches; a variety of weapons such as projectile points, clubs, and sling stones; and signs of trauma on human skeletal remains such as fractures, mutilations, and cut marks.

“In general, these periods were characterized by a common religious-political ideology (Tantaleán, 2021) and increased violence and conflict in the region, as evidenced by defensive architecture such as walls and ditches; a variety of weapons such as projectile points, clubs, and sling stones; and signs of trauma on human skeletal remains such as fractures, mutilations, and cut marks (Tomasto, 2009”

• cites Tantaleán, 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tomasto, 2009Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Soßna, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

In these respects, different levels of dependency, political-ideological coercion, and the use of violence were likely key elements in mobilizing the labor force that worked on the agricultural terraces around Cutamalla and produced, processed, and distributed highland resources.

“In these respects, different levels of dependency, political-ideological coercion, and the use of violence were likely key elements in mobilizing the labor force that worked on the agricultural terraces around Cutamalla and produced, processed, and distributed highland resources.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In order to control access to resources, people had to cooperate, and the larger socio-political-economic context suggests that this included the exploitation of some segments of society, particularly in the highlands, through compulsory and forced forms of collective labor such as mit'a.

“In order to control access to resources, people had to cooperate, and the larger socio-political-economic context suggests that this included the exploitation of some segments of society, particularly in the highlands, through compulsory and forced forms of collective labor such as mit'a (D'Altroy and Earle, 1985).”

• cites D'Altroy and Earle, 1985 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source