The conspiracy-effect: exposure to conspiracy theories (about global warming) decreases pro-social behavior and science acceptance

van der Linden, Sander

doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045

Cited by 391Misinformation and Its ImpactsClimate Change Communication and PerceptionParanormal Experiences and Beliefs

The conspiracy-effect: exposure to conspiracy theories (about global warming) decreases pro-social behavior and science acceptance

van der Linden, Sander·2015·Personality and Individual Differences

DOI 10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045

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Conspiracy theory beliefs are linked to decreased intentions to volunteer for a charity.
“decreased intentions to 1 volunteer for a charity [13]”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [13]

Amazon's Mechanical Turk: A New Source of Inexpensive, Yet High-Quality, Data?
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The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions
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“For example, recent research has shown that reading information about specific conspiracy theories can decrease people's intention to vote and vaccinate (Jolley & Douglas, 2014).”
Result
Belief in conspiracy theories
Goertzel, T. (1994) · Political Psychology · doi:10.2307/3791630 · Cited by 1,094 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, a number of recent studies have revealed that belief in one conspiracy is highly predictive of belief in other conspiracies (Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2011).”
Result
Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures
Sunstein, C. R., & Vermeule, A. (2009) · Journal of Political Philosophy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9760.2008.00325.x · Cited by 1,050 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Indeed , while some conspiracy theories are merely false, others are based on beliefs that are not only false but also harmful (Maibach, 2012; Sunstein & Vermeule, 2009).”
Background
The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Oberauer, K. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0075637 · Cited by 693 · see citing works
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The scientific consensus on climate change as a gateway belief: experimental evidence
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Dead and Alive: Beliefs in Contradictory Conspiracy Theories
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“…theories is sometimes associated with a latent psychopathology such as paranoid schizophrenia (Barron, Morgan, Towell, Altemeyer, & Swami, 2014; Darwin, Neave, & Holmes, 2011), social-personality psychologists have developed an increased interest in explaining conspiracy ideation in the…”
Background
Climate Change Denial Books and Conservative Think Tanks
Dunlap, R. E., & Jacques, P. J. (2013) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764213477096 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Conspiracy Theories and Conspiracy Theorizing
Clarke, S. (2002) · Philosophy of the Social Sciences · doi:10.1177/004931032002001 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
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Dagnall, N., Drinkwater, K., Parker, A., Denovan, A., & Parton, M. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00206 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation
Barron, D. S., Morgan, K., Towell, T., Altemeyer, B., & Swami, V. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Correction: The Role of Conspiracist Ideation and Worldviews in Predicting Rejection of Science
Lewandowsky, S., Gignac, G. E., & Oberauer, K. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134773 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
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Maibach, E. W. (2012) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100612457647 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
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van der Linden, S. (2013) · Scientific American Mind · doi:10.1038/scientificamericanmind0913-40 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
What a Hoax: Why people believe in conspiracy theories
van der Linden, S. (2013) · Scientific American Mind · Cited by 7 · see citing works

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Understanding Conspiracy Theories
Douglas, K. M., Uscinski, J. E., Sutton, R. M., Cichocka, A., Nefes, T., Ang, C. S., & Deravi, F. (2019) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12568 · Cited by 1,511 · see citing works
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van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017) · Global Challenges · doi:10.1002/gch2.201600008 · Cited by 1,058 · see citing works
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“van der Linden S, Leiserowitz A, Rosenthal S, Maibach E (2017b) Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change.”
Background
Inoculating Against Fake News About COVID-19
van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566790 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
“…unwanted persuasion (e.g., climate change or vaccination) to the manipulation techniques that underpin most fake news such as using emotional language (Brady et al., 2017), conspiratorial reasoning (Lewandowsky et al., 2013; van der Linden, 2015) or impersonating experts online (Goga et al., 2015).”
Background
Relationships among conspiratorial beliefs, conservatism and climate scepticism across nations
Hornsey, M. J., Harris, E. A., & Fielding, K. S. (2018) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-018-0157-2 · Cited by 501 · see citing works
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Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2019) · Journal of Risk Research · doi:10.1080/13669877.2018.1443491 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
“…was used twice, conspiratorial reasoning (theorizing that small groups are working in secret against the common good, see Hofstadter 1964; van der Linden 2015) twice, demonization of the out-group (Atkinson 2005) once, whataboutism (discrediting via hyprocisy accusations or the ‘tu…”
Method
Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain
van Prooijen, J., & Douglas, K. M. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2530 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
“Furthermore, in experimental studies of conspiracy theories, behavioral measurements are also lacking (for an exception, see Van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Conspiracy Theories and Their Societal Effects During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Pummerer, L., BOHM, R. M., Lilleholt, L., Winter, K., Zettler, I., & Sassenberg, K. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506211000217 · Cited by 344 · see citing works
“More recently, experimental studies started to provide evidence for the effects of the confrontation with conspiracy theories with the aim to establish causality (e.g., Einstein & Glick, 2015; Jolly & Douglas, 2014a; Van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Conspiracy Theories: Evolved Functions and Psychological Mechanisms
van Prooijen, J.-W., & van Vugt, M. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691618774270 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
What Are Conspiracy Theories? A Definitional Approach to Their Correlates, Consequences, and Communication
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2022) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-032420-031329 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
Climate Change Disinformation and How to Combat It
Lewandowsky, S. (2020) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-090419-102409 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
“, that scientists doctored the data) diminishes people’s intentions to reduce their carbon footprint (42, 81, 158).”
Background
A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Psychological Research on Conspiracy Beliefs: Field Characteristics, Measurement Instruments, and Associations With Personality Traits
Goreis, A., & Voracek, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00205 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
“…theories, such as those doubting the scientific facts about anthropogenic climate change (Lewandowsky et al., 2013a,b; Jolley and Douglas, 2014b; Van der Linden, 2015; van Prooijen et al., 2015) and medical conspiracies (Oliver and Wood, 2014a; Pavlova and Silbereisen, 2015; Galliford and…”
Background
The Paranoid Style in American Politics Revisited: An Ideological Asymmetry in Conspiratorial Thinking
van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., Azevedo, F., & Jost, J. T. (2020) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12681 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Conspiracy Theories and the People Who Believe Them
(2018) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.001.0001 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Determinants and Measurement of Climate Change Risk Perception, Worry, and Concern
van der Linden, S. (2016) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.318 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
“In one study, van der Linden (2015A) provides empirical support for the two-dimensional factor structure of risk perception and further shows that each dimension may have different antecedents.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
An Existential Threat Model of Conspiracy Theories
van Prooijen, J. (2019) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000381 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
How behavioural sciences can promote truth, autonomy and democratic discourse online
Lorenz-Spreen, P., Lewandowsky, S., Sunstein, C. R., & Hertwig, R. (2020) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-020-0889-7 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Psychological Inoculation against Misinformation: Current Evidence and Future Directions
Traberg, C. S., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221087936 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
“…can have downstream effects on attitudes and behavior, such as undermining climate change mitigation (Cook, Lewandowsky, and Ecker 2017; van der Linden 2015), instigating violence (Jolley and Paterson 2020), and lowering vaccination intentions and compliance with public health guidelines…”
Background
The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Optimism-pessimism, conspiracy theories and general trust as factors contributing to COVID-19 related behavior – A cross-cultural study
Jovančević, A., & Milićević, N. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110216 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“Studies show that belief in conspiracy theories is associated with lower possibility in engaging in socially desirable activities connected to those theories (Van der Linden, 2015) and in COVID-19 pandemics, with more hoarding (Imhoff & Lamberty, 2020).”
Content matters. Different predictors and social consequences of general and government-related conspiracy theories on COVID-19
Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Maison, D. A., & Łyś, A. E. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110289 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“Since people who believe in conspiracy theories are characterised by extreme scepticism and a lack of faith in authority, they often reject scientifically established facts, such as those related to, for example, climate change (e.g. van der Linden, 2015; van Prooijen, 2019).”
Suspicion of institutions: How distrust and conspiracy theories deteriorate social relationships
van Prooijen, J., Spadaro, G., & Wang, H. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.06.013 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Climate Change Conspiracy Theories
Uscinski, J. E., Douglas, K. M., & Lewandowsky, S. (2016) · Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.328 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“I Know Things They Don’t Know!”: The Role of Need for Uniqueness in Belief in Conspiracy Theories
Lantian, A., Muller, D., Nurra, C., & Douglas, K. M. (2017) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000306 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Individual difference factors and beliefs in medical and political conspiracy theories
Galliford, N., & Furnham, A. F. (2017) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12382 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Attitudes Towards Science
Rutjens, B. T., Heine, S. J., Sutton, R. M., & van Harreveld, F. (2017) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.08.001 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“…climate and vaccination science leads to disillusionment with scientists and, in turn, reluctance to act in accordance with their findings—for example, by taking measures to mitigate climate change, or by vaccinating one’s children ( Jolley & Douglas, 2014a, 2014b, 2017; van der Linden, 2015).”
The ‘Alice in Wonderland’ mechanics of the rejection of (climate) science: simulating coherence by conspiracism
Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., & Lloyd, E. (2018) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-016-1198-6 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
“On the contrary, it has been shown that the mere exposure to conspiracy theories involving global warming decreases pro-environmental decision making and the intention to reduce one’s carbon footprint (Jolley and Douglas 2013; van der Linden 2015).”
Background
Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy
March, E., & Springer, J. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“Although some conspiracy theories may be considered harmless, research has shown that belief in conspiracy theories is associated with negative social, health, and civic outcomes [2], including more acceptance of violent behaviour [3] and a decrease in prosocial behaviour [4].”
Background
An automated pipeline for the discovery of conspiracy and conspiracy theory narrative frameworks: Bridgegate, Pizzagate and storytelling on the web
Tangherlini, T. R., Shahsavari, S., Shahbazi, B., Ebrahimzadeh, E., & Roychowdhury, V. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233879 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“The recent amplification of conspiracy theories on social media and internet forums has led to an increase in attention paid to how these stories circulate [26][27][28][29][30], and engendered discussions of the impact these stories may have on decision making [31][32][33].”
Background
The Determinants of Conspiracy Beliefs Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic in a Nationally Representative Sample of Internet Users
Duplaga, M. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17217818 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
The impact of economic inequality on conspiracy beliefs
Casara, B. G. S., Suitner, C., & Jetten, J. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2021.104245 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Breaking Harmony Square: A game that “inoculates” against political misinformation
Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-47 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
“Creating and spreading conspiracy theories, i.e., blaming a small, secretive and nefarious organization for events going on in the world (Lewandowsky et al., 2013; van der Linden, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluential
To share or not to share – The underlying motives of sharing fake news amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia
Balakrishnan, V., Ng, K. S., & Rahim, H. A. (2021) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2021.101676 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Measuring pro-environmental behavior using the carbon emission task
Berger, S., & Wyss, A. M. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101613 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
The Gateway Belief Model (GBM): A review and research agenda for communicating the scientific consensus on climate change
van der Linden, S. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.01.005 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Associations between belief in conspiracy theories and the maladaptive personality traits of the personality inventory for DSM-5.
Swami, V., Weis, L., Lay, A., Barron, D. S., & Furnham, A. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.12.027 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
A Power‐Challenging Theory of Society, or a Conservative Mindset? Upward and Downward Conspiracy Theories as Ideologically Distinct Beliefs
Nera, K., Wagner-Egger, P., Bertin, P., Douglas, K. M., & Klein, O. (2021) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2769 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“…et al., 2019; Galliford & Furnham, 2017; Hart & Graether, 2018; Imhoff & Bruder, 2014; Miller et al. 2016; Ståhl & van Prooijen, 2018; van der Linden, 2015; van der Linden et al., 2020; Wagner-Egger & Bangerter, 2007; however, for an example of ―left-wing bias‖, see Krouwel et al., 2017).”
The entertainment value of conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J., Ligthart, J., Rosema, S., & Xu, Y. (2021) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12522 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Climate of conspiracy: A meta-analysis of the consequences of belief in conspiracy theories about climate change
Biddlestone, M., Azevedo, F., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101390 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism
Poon, K.-T., Chen, Z., & Wong, W.-Y. (2020) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167219898944 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“The increased endorsement of conspiracy theories after feeling ostracized may exacerbate such notorious effects because past research has shown that beliefs in conspiracy theories hold the potential to breed aggression and inhibit prosocial behaviors (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Pathways to conspiracy: The social and linguistic precursors of involvement in Reddit’s conspiracy theory forum
Klein, C., Clutton, P., & Dunn, A. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225098 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“Some have argued that the key psychological feature of conspiracy theorists is a “monological belief system” in which everything connects to everything else [3,39,42].”
Background
Stigmatized beliefs: Conspiracy theories, anticipated negative evaluation of the self, and fear of social exclusion
Lantian, A., Müller, D., Nurra, C., Klein, O., Berjot, S., & Pantazi, M. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2498 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Systems thinking and environmental concern
Lezak, S., & Thibodeau, P. H. (2016) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.04.005 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
What drives people to believe in Zika conspiracy theories?
Klofstad, C. A., Uscinski, J. E., Connolly, J., & West, J. (2019) · Palgrave Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-019-0243-8 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Understanding and Countering Misinformation About Climate Change
Cook, J. (2019) · Advances in media, entertainment and the arts (AMEA) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-8535-0.ch016 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“They can lower support for climate action (van der Linden, 2015), decrease one’s intent to reduce one’s carbon footprint (Jolley & Douglas, 2014), and decrease trust in government (Einstein & Glick, 2014).”
Background
To what extent are conspiracy theorists concerned for self versus others? A COVID‐19 test case
Hornsey, M. J., Chapman, C. M., Álvarez, B., Bentley, S. V., Casara, B. G. S., Crimston, C. R., Ionescu, O., Krug, H., Selvanathan, H. P., Steffens, N. K., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2737 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Dovetailing with the portrait painted by these correlational data are experimental data showing that exposure to conspiracy theories decreases various prosocial actions, including donation intentions (van der Linden, 2015) and vaccination intentions (Jolley & Douglas, 2014).”
Background
Research on climate change in social psychology publications: A systematic review
Tam, K., Leung, A. K. ‐., & Clayton, S. (2021) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12477 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“For instance, both Goldberg et al. (2019) and van der Linden (2015) examined people’s perception of scientific agreement or consensus on human-caused climate change as an outcome variable.”
Background
The COVID‐19 pandemic and the search for structure: Social media and conspiracy theories
Dow, B. J., Johnson, A. L., Wang, C. S., Whitson, J., & Menon, T. (2021) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12636 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“As mere exposure to conspiracy theories tends to increase belief in them, algorithms can create vulnerabilities in people who may not have initial inclinations toward those theories (Jolley & Douglas, 2014; Jolley et al., 2020; Kim & Cao, 2016; van der Linden, 2015).”
Are conspiracy theories harmless?
Douglas, K. M. (2021) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2021.10 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Another study has shown that climate change conspiracy theories also reduce intentions to sign a petition to help reduce the impact of global warming (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Framing the Origins of COVID-19
Bolsen, T., Palm, R. I., & Kingsland, J. T. (2020) · Science Communication · doi:10.1177/1075547020953603 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“…(e.g., penalize China vs. devote more public funds to researchers studying zoonotic disease transmission); and (3) testing for the presence of a “conspiracy effect” whereby exposure to conspiracy rhetoric reduces individuals’ willingness to engage in prosocial actions (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Partisanship, Individual Differences, and News Media Exposure as Predictors of Conspiracy Beliefs
Hollander, B. A. (2017) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/1077699017728919 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…2010; Salmon et al., 2005), those who share conspiracies about HIV/AIDS can have negative attitudes about its prevention and treatment (Bogart, Wagner, Galvan, & Banks, 2010), and exposure to conspiracy theories about global warming can result in less acceptance of science (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Changes in perceived scientific consensus shift beliefs about climate change and GM food safety
Kerr, J. R., & Wilson, M. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0200295 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“or by watching a sceptical ‘climate conspiracy’ video [32].”
Background
The conditional effect of conspiracy thinking on attitudes toward climate change
Uscinski, J. E., & Olivella, S. (2017) · Research & Politics · doi:10.1177/2053168017743105 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Researchers find that just exposure to climate change conspiracy theories can have a harmful effect on climate opinions and behaviors (Jolley and Douglas, 2014; van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
The crisis of politicization within and beyond science
Druckman, J. N. (2017) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-017-0183-5 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The psychological and political correlates of conspiracy theory beliefs
Uscinski, J. E., Enders, A., Diekman, A., Funchion, J., Klofstad, C. A., Kübler, S., Murthi, M., Premaratne, K., Seelig, M. I., Verdear, D., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-25617-0 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, the extant literature has focused heavily on some conspiracy theories, such as those regarding climate change 63–65 , Barack Obama’s birth certificate 12, 13, 66 , and the terror attacks of 9/11/2001 67–69 , oftentimes attempting to draw generalizable inferences about the broader…”
Factors Predicting Willingness to Share COVID-19 Misinformation
Lobato, E. J. C., Powell, M., Padilla, L. M. K., & Holbrook, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.566108 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“…found that belief in conspiracies correlates with the rejection of science and endorsement of pseudoscience (Lewandowsky et al., 2013a,b; Lobato et al., 2014; van der Linden, 2015; Lobato and Zimmerman, 2019) and to a general attitude toward science as lacking credibility (Hartman et al., 2017).”
The Psychology of Fake News
Greifeneder, R., Jaffé, M. E., Newman, E. J., & Schwarz, N. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429295379 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Understanding and countering climate science denial
Cook, J. (2017) · Journal and proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales · doi:10.5962/p.361798 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Understanding of the greenhouse mechanism and perceived consensus both have a strong influence on acceptance of the reality of human-caused global warming, and support for mitigation policies (Ranney and Clark, 2016; van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
The language of conspiracy: A psychological analysis of speech used by conspiracy theorists and their followers on Twitter
Fong, A., Roozenbeek, J., Goldwert, D., Rathje, S., & van der Linden, S. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220987596 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…thinking (e.g., Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Goertzel, 1994; Swami et al., 2011; van der Linden et al., 2020; van Prooijen et al., 2015), or how exposure to conspiracy theories affects (anti)social beliefs and behavior (van der Linden, 2015; see Douglas et al., 2019, for an extensive review).”
Background
Determinants and Measurement of Climate Change Risk Perception, Worry, and ConcernPreprint
van der Linden, S. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2953631 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Psychological benefits of believing conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101352 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Conspiratorial thinking during COVID-19: The roles of paranoia, delusion-proneness, and intolerance of uncertainty
Larsen, E. M., Donaldson, K. R., Liew, M., & Mohanty, A. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mb65f · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“All study participants were Stony Brook University (SBU) undergraduates Frontiers in Psychiatry | www.frontiersin.org 2 August 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 698147 COVID-19 CT, Conspiratorial thinking related to COVID-19; COVID-19 CT # Items, number of CT items endorsed as either “Probably True (4)” or “Definitely True (…”
Background
Topic Modeling Reveals Distinct Interests within an Online Conspiracy Forum
Klein, C., Clutton, P., & Polito, V. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00189 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Conspiracy theories are not socially innocuous: aside from obvious political eﬀects, endorsement of conspiracy theories is associated with rejection of science and unwillingness to donate to prosocial causes (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Examining the links between conspiracy beliefs and the EU “Brexit” referendum vote in the UK: Evidence from a two‐wave survey
Jolley, D., Douglas, K. M., Marchlewska, M., Cichocka, A. K., & Sutton, R. M. (2021) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12829 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“However, a limitation of existing research is that it has typically measured intentions rather than behaviours (with the exception of van der Linden, 2015).”
'The Government Spies Using Our Webcams': The Language of Conspiracy Theories in Online Discussions
Samory, M., & Mitra, T. (2018) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3274421 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Are misinformation, antiscientific claims, and conspiracy theories for political extremists?
Enders, A. M., & Uscinski, J. E. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220960805 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Since beliefs in dubious ideas lead to negative medical, social, and political outcomes (Jolley et al., 2019; Oliver & Wood, 2014b; van der Linden, 2015), understanding beliefs in misinformation, antiscientific claims, and conspiracy theories has become a critical area of study for researchers…”
Background
There are higher levels of conspiracy beliefs in more corrupt countries
Alper, S. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2919 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
How (Ir)rational is it to believe in contradictory conspiracy theories?
Lukić, P., Žeželj, I., & Stanković, B. (2019) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v15i1.1690 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Even though Wood et al. (2012) were careful in explaining their central finding, it is often evoked in the academic debate to illustrate how irrational it is to believe in CTs (Brotherton, French, & Pickering, 2013; Swami, Voracek, Stieger, Tran, & Furnham, 2014; van der Linden, 2015).”
Stand out of my sunlight: The mediating role of climate change conspiracy beliefs in the relationship between national collective narcissism and acceptance of climate science
Bertin, P., Nera, K., Hamer, K., Uhl-Haedicke, I., & Delouvée, S. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430221992114 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“In the context of climate change and pro-environmental action, conspiracy theories are negatively related to intentions to reduce one’s carbon footprint (Jolley & Douglas, 2014) and pro-environmental behavior (Van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Conspiracy theories and their societal effects during the COVID-19 pandemic
Pummerer, L., Böhm, R., Lilleholt, L., Winter, K., Zettler, I., & Sassenberg, K. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y5grn · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Finding Someone to Blame: The Link Between COVID-19 Conspiracy Beliefs, Prejudice, Support for Violence, and Other Negative Social Outcomes
Šrol, J., Čavojová, V., & Mikušková, E. B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.726076 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…explored decreased prosocial behavior as another potential dimension of negative social outcomes associated with COVID-19 conspiracy theories, based on some previous partial evidence for the link between conspiracy theory endorsement and prosociality (van der Linden, 2015; Oleksy et al., 2021).”
BackgroundResult
Actors of the most fiendish character: Explaining the associations between the Dark Tetrad and conspiracist ideation
Kay, C. S. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110543 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs and science rejection
(2022) · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101392 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Who Believes in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories in Croatia? Prevalence and Predictors of Conspiracy Beliefs
Tonković, M., Dumančić, F., Jelić, M., & Biruški, D. Č. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.643568 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“For example, it has been shown that conspiratorial thinking is related to the rejection of climate science (Lewandowsky et al., 2013a,b; van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Intentions to be Vaccinated Against COVID-19: The Role of Prosociality and Conspiracy Beliefs across 20 Countries
Enea, V., Eisenbeck, N., Carreno, D. F., Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Agostini, M., Bélanger, J., Gützkow, B., Kreienkamp, J., Abakoumkin, G., et al. (2022) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.2018179 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Protecting consumers from fraudulent health claims: A taxonomy of psychological drivers, interventions, barriers, and treatments.
MacFarlane, D., Hurlstone, M. J., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2020) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.112790 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Conspiracy theories can have broad negative consequences for society through the rejection of scientific evidence and the associated poor health choices (e.g., see van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Are COVID‐19 conspiracies a threat to public health? Psychological characteristics and health protective behaviours of believers
Juanchich, M., Sirota, M., Jolles, D., & Whiley, L. A. (2020) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2796 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“For example, exposure to climate change conspiracy theories reduced science acceptance and pro-environmental behaviours (van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Beyond belief: How social engagement motives influence the spread of conspiracy theories
Ren, Z., Dimant, E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104421 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
How social identity shapes conspiratorial belief
Robertson, C. E., Pretus, C., Rathje, S., Harris, E. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101423 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Exposure to conspiracy theories can reduce prosocial behavior (van der Linden, 2015), while increasing intentions to engage in anti-social behavior such as petty crime (Jolley et al., 2019).”
Background
Who Believes in Conspiracy Theories in Great Britain and Europe?
Drochon, H. H. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190844073.003.0022 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
How Believing Climate Change is a “Hoax” Shapes Climate Skepticism in the United States
Sarathchandra, D., & Haltinner, K. (2020) · Environmental Sociology · doi:10.1080/23251042.2020.1855884 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Believing in conspiracy theories around climate change has been shown to negatively affect both one’s acceptance of science and the adherent’s prosocial behavior (van der Linden 2015).”
Background
Stigmatized Beliefs: Conspiracy Theories, Anticipated Negative Evaluation of the Self, and Fear of Social ExclusionPreprint
Lantian, A., Müller, D., Nurra, C., Klein, O., Berjot, S., & Pantazi, M. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bgzt4 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Trust in science increases conservative support for social distancing
Koetke, J., Schumann, K., & Porter, T. (2021) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430220985918 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Conservatives report lower trust in science than liberals on general trust in science measures (Nadelson et al., 2014), as well as lower trust in science regarding certain issues, such as climate change (van der Linden, 2015a, 2015b) and evolution (Nisbet et al., 2015).”
Background
Social media hoaxes, political ideology, and the role of issue confidence
Park, K., & Rim, H. (2018) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2018.11.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Furthermore, exposure to hoaxes manipulates the nonpublic, causing them to employ heuristic decisionmaking as they oversimplify an issue and the related problems in an effort to complete a cursory processing of the issue (van der Linden, 2015).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Moral foundations, worldviews, moral absolutism and belief in conspiracy theories
Leone, L., Giacomantonio, M., & Lauriola, M. (2017) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.12459 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The generality of belief in unsubstantiated claims
Bensley, D. A., Lilienfeld, S., Rowan, K., Masciocchi, C., & Grain, F. (2019) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3581 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“…claims have led people to use ineffective, sometimes dangerous treatments (Lilienfeld, 2007); and endorsement of conspiracy theories can lead to inaction in the face of a serious existential threat, as in accepting the belief that anthropogenic global warming is a hoax (Van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
Psychological underpinnings of pandemic denial - patterns of disagreement with scientific experts in the German public during the COVID-19 pandemic
Rothmund, T., Farkhari, F., Ziemer, C., & Azevedo, F. (2022) · Public Understanding of Science · doi:10.1177/09636625211068131 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Does deliberation decrease belief in conspiracies?Preprint
Bagó, B., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104395 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…claims in general (Lewandowsky et al., 2013), and lower prosociality and reduced pro-environmental behaviour (Douglas & Sutton, 2015; Uscinski et al., 2017; Van der Linden, 2015), to mention a few (for a recent review on the apparent effects of conspiracy beliefs see: Douglas et al. 2019).”
Background
Belief in conspiracy theories and non-normative behavior
Pummerer, L. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101394 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Avoidant attachment style and conspiracy ideation
Leone, L., Giacomantonio, M., Williams, R., & Michetti, D. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.043 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Conspiratorial Narratives in Violent Political Actors’ Language
Baele, S. J. (2019) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x19868494 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Where the earth is flat and 9/11 is an inside job: A comparative algorithm audit of conspiratorial information in web search results
Urman, A., Makhortykh, M., Ulloa, R., & Kulshrestha, J. (2022) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2022.101860 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Gegen die Öffentlichkeit
Schwaiger, L. (2022) · transcript Verlag eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783839461211 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Communicating to the Public in the Era of Conspiracy Theory
Connolly, J. M., Uscinski, J. E., Klofstad, C., & West, J. P. (2019) · Public Integrity · doi:10.1080/10999922.2019.1603045 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“For example, studies show that exposure to conspiracy theories about climate change or vaccines can reduce people’s intention to limit their carbon footprint or to vaccinate themselves or a child against disease (Jolley & Douglas, 2014; van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
To get vaccinated or not? Social psychological factors associated with vaccination intent for COVID-19
Baeza-Rivera, M. J., Salazar-Fernández, C., Araneda-Leal, L., & Manríquez-Robles, D. (2021) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1177/18344909211051799 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
I won't comply because it is a hoax: Conspiracy beliefs, lockdown compliance, and the importance of psychological flexibility
Constantinou, M., Gloster, A., & Karekla, M. (2021) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.03.001 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“…are attributions or explanations purporting that an agent (individual, group, or organization) is deliberately and intentionally plotting to accomplish a sinister goal despite other more probable explanations or strong evidence against these beliefs (Aaronivitch, 2009; Van der Linden, 2015).”
Background
The (Mis)Information Game: A social media simulator
Butler, L. H., Lamont, P. X., Wan, D. L. Y., Prike, T., Nasim, M., Walker, B., Fay, N., & Ecker, U. K. H. (2023) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-023-02153-x · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“…can have (e.g., exacerbating vaccine refusal and climate-change denial; Donzelli et al., 2018; Loomba et al., 2021; Simonov et al., 2022; van der Linden, 2015), substantial research has gone into understanding the conditions under which people form misinformed beliefs, and reject or…”
Background
The Psychological Impacts and Message Features of Health Misinformation
Schmid, P., Altay, S., & Scherer, L. D. (2023) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000494 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Broadening the voice of science: Promoting scientific communication in the undergraduate classroom
Cirino, L. A., Emberts, Z., Joseph, P., Allen, P. E., Lopatto, D. E., & Miller, C. W. (2017) · Ecology and Evolution · doi:10.1002/ece3.3501 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Antibiotics kill viruses (Collett, Pappas, Evans, & Hayden, 1999), vaccines cause autism (Ruiz & Bell, 2014), and global climate change is a conspiracy (van der Linden, 2015).”

Concerning psychology: Psychology applied to social issues
Jayasinghe, M. (1994) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)90049-3
The social consequences of conspiracism: exposure to conspiracy theories decreases intentions to engage in politics and to reduce one’s carbon footprint
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12018 · Cited by 685 · see citing works
Climate of conspiracy: A meta-analysis of the consequences of belief in conspiracy theories about climate change
Biddlestone, M., Azevedo, F., & van der Linden, S. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101390 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Fork of Endorsement of conspiracy theories concerning coronavirus and selected aspects of psychosocial functioning during the COVID-19 pandemicsPreprint
Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Studzinska, A., Bargiel-Matusiewicz, K., & Łyś, A. E. (2020) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints)
Not that different after all: Pro‐environmental social norms predict pro‐environmental behaviour (also) among those believing in conspiracy theories
Winter, K., Pummerer, L., & Sassenberg, K. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70030 · Cited by 8 · see citing works

Authors: van der Linden, S.
Venue: Personality and Individual Differences
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2015-12
Volume: 87
Pages: 171-173
ISSN: 0191-8869 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.045
OpenAlex: W1199131209
Cited by: 391
References: 33
Citations by year: 2026: 18 · 2025: 44 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 67 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 36 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 48 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 2
FWCI: 82.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Individual Differences (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Climate Change Communication and Perception
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
Keywords: conspiracy theories, global warming, climate change skepticism, prosocial behavior, environmental decision-making, charitable giving, petition signing, climate change denial

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