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Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies
Open accessAbstract
Adolescent athletes face unique nutritional challenges due to the simultaneous demands of growth, development, and athletic performance. This review synthesizes current evidence on energy and macronutrient requirements, hydration strategies, and key micronutrients, including iron, calcium, and vitamin D, which are essential for supporting health and performance in youth sport. It explores the physiological risks associated with low energy availability (LEA), while emphasizing the importance of carbohydrate and protein timing, quality, and distribution. The review also evaluates the role of dietary supplements and ergogenic aids, including creatine and energy drinks, highlighting safety concerns and advocating for a food-first approach. Practical strategies for nutrition education, interdisciplinary collaboration, and individualized care are presented to guide healthcare professionals, coaches, and caregivers in fostering sustainable, performance-supportive eating habits. By aligning intake with training demands and developmental needs, adolescent athletes can optimize performance, recovery, and long-term well-being.
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Overview
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TL;DR
This narrative review synthesizes evidence on energy, macronutrient, hydration, micronutrient, and supplement needs for adolescent athletes, emphasizing individualized, food-first care. It highlights frequent under-fueling and risks of low energy availability, while noting that many guidelines and safety data remain extrapolated from adults.
Key findings
- Many adolescent athletes fail to meet energy needs: Portuguese male soccer players had mean energy intake of 1929 kcal/day vs predicted expenditure of 3568 kcal/day (deficit 1639 kcal/day); volleyball players met 60% of estimated requirements vs 74% in non-athletes; tennis players averaged 2027–2275 kcal/day across age groups. LEA risk threshold <30 kcal/kg FFM/day and ≥45 kcal/kg FFM/day optimal are cited from female athletes, but adolescent-specific cutoffs are not established; a proposed PAL range for adolescents is 1.75–2.05.
- Carbohydrate recommendations are 6–10 g/kg/day; during exercise >60 min, 30–60 g/hour; post-exercise 1.0–1.2 g/kg every 2 h for 4–6 h. Protein guidance for athletes is 1.4–2.0 g/kg/day vs 0.75–1.05 g/kg/day for children/adolescents 8–19 years; 20–40 g high-quality protein per meal every 3–4 h is advised, with post-exercise 0.25–0.30 g/kg; whole-body net protein balance plateaued at ~0.30 g/kg in adolescents 14–18 years (n = 13).
- Iron deficiency affects approximately 20% of athletes overall, more than 35% of female athletes, and up to 52% of female adolescent athletes; ferritin <15 µg/L indicates depleted stores, 15–30 µg/L low reserves, and a clinical cutoff of 30 µg/L is proposed for athletes >15 years. Calcium recommendation is 1300 mg/day for ages 14–18; vitamin D RDA is 600–800 IU/day; NHANES data indicate 22.7% of U.S. adolescents 12–19 are at risk of inadequacy and 4.8% at risk of deficiency. Hydration: young adolescents should consume ~3–8 oz every 20 min, older adolescents up to 1.0 L/hour; 1–2% body-mass fluid loss can impair aerobic performance and cognition.
- Creatine use was reported by 8.8% of boys and 1.8% of girls in grades 6–12, and 21% of boys/3% of girls aged 13–18; low-dose creatine (0.03 g/kg/day) over seven days improved power output in elite youth soccer players. Energy drinks had been tried by 68% of European adolescents 10–18 vs 30% of adults; health organizations recommend a maximum caffeine intake of 100 mg/day for adolescents. Protein supplements are usually unnecessary, and a food-first approach with third-party testing is recommended; nutrition knowledge gaps include only 16% of youth athletes reporting dietitian input, and 65% of New Zealand athletes using social media for nutrition information, with 84% concerned about reliability.
Methods
- Narrative review synthesizing published research on sports nutrition for young athletes; no systematic review protocol, search strategy, or meta-analysis is described.
- Population definition: adolescent athletes are girls aged 12–18 years and boys aged 14–18 years (Tanner stages 3–4) engaged in structured physical training for more than 60 min/day, 5–6 days/week, typically in school, club, or community sports.
- Main analysis is a narrative synthesis of energy requirements, macronutrients, hydration, key micronutrients, ergogenic aids/supplements, and practical nutrition-education strategies, with summary tables.
Limitations
- Stated: most existing guidelines are based on adult populations; ethical and logistical challenges limit research in adolescents; there is no universally accepted gold standard for estimating energy needs; direct measurement methods are impractical; adolescent-specific LEA cutoffs are not established; research on creatine and vitamin D in adolescent athletes is limited; evidence for omega-3 and artificial food colors in this population is limited or mixed.
- Evident: as a narrative review, it does not describe systematic search, inclusion criteria, or quality appraisal, and many findings are extrapolated from adults or non-adolescent athletic groups (e.g., vitamin D, omega-3, iron timing), limiting adolescent-specific certainty.
- Stated: a male adolescent RED-S study noted periodic energy-availability measurements may have been insufficient, and more research is needed to determine LEA thresholds in male adolescents.
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“This equation may better estimate baseline energy needs for adolescent athletes in clinical and sports nutrition settings.”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 2. Energy Requirements
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [11] Reale, 2020, Metabolic rate in adolescent athletes: The development and validation of new equations, and comparison to previous models, Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab. source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Young athletes may be particularly susceptible to external influences, such as those from parents, peers, and coaches, which can increase the risk of disordered eating behaviors [2].”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [2] Jovanović, G., and Čulina, T. (2024). Prevalence of potential risk of eating disorders among young, unprofessional European athletes: Results of the ERASMUS+ project SCAED. Front. Nutr., 11. source
hedgedstates a possible cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Research assessing physical activity levels among adolescent athletes aged 12–18 years found that the mean PAL in this population was significantly lower than adult-based recommendations [36].”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 2. Energy Requirements
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Carlsohn, 2011, Physical activity levels to estimate the energy requirement of adolescent athletes, Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Using adolescent-specific PAL values provides a more accurate and developmentally appropriate framework for estimating energy requirements.”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 2. Energy Requirements
plainstates a cause- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Research has demonstrated that adolescent females with a younger gynecological age are more prone to anovulation and shortened luteal phases.”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 2. Energy Requirements
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] Loucks, 2006, The response of luteinizing hormone Pulsatility to 5 days of low energy availability disappears by 14 years of gynecological age, J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. source
boostedstates an association- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > 3. Carbohydrates
“Stables et al. found that training with 0 g/kg carbohydrate intake led to a 28% increase in serum CTX (C-terminal telopeptide of type I collagen), a marker of bone resorption, compared to those consuming 1.5 g/kg carbohydrate (p = 0.03) [16].”
§ Optimizing Performance Nutrition for Adolescent Athletes: A Review of Dietary Needs, Risks, and Practical Strategies > References
“16. Ivy J.L. Glycogen resynthesis after exercise: Effect of carbohydrate intake Int. J. Sports Med. 1998 19 (Suppl. S2) S142 S145 10.1055/s-2007-971981 9694422”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Everett, S.
- Affiliations
- Stony Brook University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Everett, Sotiria
- ORCID
- Everett, Sotiria
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2025-08-28
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 17
- Pages
- 2792
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC12430154
- OpenAlex
- W4413771665
- Semantic Scholar
- 0dab4c7ec15211a7a766fefbd4c2a44885433ba7
- Cited by
- 37
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 6
- FWCI
- 3.68
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- youth athletes, sports nutrition, hydration, iron, calcium, vitamin D, low energy availability, protein timing, dietary supplements, creatine, energy drinks, nutrition education, youth sports
- MeSH terms
- Youth Sports, Adolescent, Energy Intake, Diet, Female, Humans, Male, Nutritional Requirements, Nutritional Status, Adolescent Nutritional Physiological Phenomena, Micronutrients, Dietary Supplements, Athletic Performance, Athletes, Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-14, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-14 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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Data sources
Bibliographic data: Semantic Scholar, OpenAlex, Crossref.
Contains information from the Semantic Scholar Academic Graph Datasets, made available under the ODC Attribution License (ODC-BY 1.0).
Semantic Scholar’s data is described in: Kinney, R., et al. (2023). The Semantic Scholar Open Data Platform. arXiv:2301.10140.
