CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 0Diversity and Career in MedicineCareer Development and DiversityMedical Education and Admissions

Efficacy of Early Exposure Medical Programs for Underrepresented Students: A Systematic Review

Open access
Jaganathan, Nikhil, Guntaka, Rithwik, Goel, Varun, Odo, Nadine, Sun, Zhuo, Arthur, Mary E·2026·Cureus
DOI 10.7759/cureus.109396PMC PMC13283067
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Despite decades of initiatives, the physician workforce does not reflect the United States demographic diversity. Underrepresented students are lost at multiple stages of the path to medicine due to academic, financial, and psychosocial barriers, including limited access to ethnoracially concordant role models. Although "pipeline" and "outreach" programs have been implemented, evidence-based evaluation of their effectiveness remains limited. OBJECTIVE: To identify components of early medical exposure programs associated with increased interest in medicine, self-efficacy, and diversity in the medical field. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of published studies evaluating early medical exposure programs measuring quantitative outcomes. Searches of PubMed, Cochrane, and ScienceDirect were performed for publications from April 1999 to October 2025. Two reviewers independently screened studies, with discrepancies resolved by consensus. RESULTS: Of 464 studies identified, 24 met inclusion criteria. Mentorship (n=18) and research (n=13) were the common program components, followed by application preparation, observership experience, and subspecialty exposure. High school students were the primary participants (n=14), followed by undergraduates (n=8). Program duration varied from one day to three years, with longer programs associated with improved academic performance and increased higher education. Frequently reported outcomes included further education (n=10), increased biomedical and STEM degrees (n=8), increased interest in medicine (n=7), improved academic performance (n=4), and greater self-efficacy (n=4). Risk of bias was rated as "Low" or "Moderate." CONCLUSION: Early exposure programs for underrepresented students are associated with increased interest in medicine, improved self-efficacy, reduced perceived barriers, and academic benefits. Mentorship and research emerged as the most prominent components, associated with increased likelihood of further education and the pursuit of biomedical/STEM degrees.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review of 24 studies finds that early medical exposure programs for underrepresented students are associated with increased interest in medicine, improved self-efficacy, reduced perceived barriers, and academic benefits. Mentorship and research were the most common components, with longer program duration linked to improved academic performance and increased further education.

Key findings

  • Of 464 identified studies, 24 met inclusion criteria; mentorship (n=18) and research (n=13) were the most common program components.
  • High school students were the primary participants (n=14), followed by undergraduates (n=8), post-baccalaureate students (n=4), and middle school students (n=2).
  • Frequently reported outcomes included further education (n=10), increased biomedical and STEM degrees (n=8), increased interest in medicine (n=7), improved academic performance (n=4), and greater self-efficacy (n=4).
  • Longer programs were associated with improved academic performance and increased higher education; risk of bias was rated “Low” or “Moderate.”

Methods

  • Systematic review of published articles and abstracts on early medical exposure programs for middle school, high school, undergraduate, and post-baccalaureate students, searching PubMed, Cochrane, and ScienceDirect from April 1999 to October 2025.
  • Two reviewers independently screened studies, with discrepancies resolved by consensus; inclusion required primary studies with quantitative outcomes, while secondary literature, studies lacking quantitative outcome measures, and graduate/residency-only initiatives were excluded.
  • Risk of bias was assessed with ROBINS-I V2, quality was screened with Oxford Levels of Evidence excluding studies below 2C, and findings were synthesized narratively because heterogeneity prevented meta-analysis.

Limitations

  • The paper states heterogeneity of included programs, reliance on short-term self-reported outcomes, selection bias from recruiting highly motivated students, lack of control groups limiting causality, and limited sample sizes/generalizability.
  • The paper also states that data could not be meaningfully pooled for meta-analysis and that standardized outcome measures and longitudinal studies are needed.
  • Evident from the text: most included studies were non-randomized, and confounding and participant selection were rated “Moderate” almost universally, further limiting causal inference.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.7759/cureus.109396

Cites

34 of 34 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

41 of 75 cited sources checked · 22 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingcitation

    Interest in orthopedic surgery was greater among students who had connections to orthopedic surgeons, shadowed orthopedic surgery, or had undergone orthopedic surgery.

    “Interest in orthopedic surgery was greater among students who had connections to orthopedic surgeons, shadowed orthopedic surgery, or had undergone orthopedic surgery, highlighting the importance of prior connections and experience [5].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Bergstein VE, Schmerler J, Seidenstein AH, LaPorte DM. Expanding the pipeline: exposure and female mentorship increase interest in orthopaedic surgery among female premedical undergraduate students. JB JS Open Access. 2024, 9:e24.00142. 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00142 source
  • Findingown data

    Risk of bias was found to be either "Low" or "Moderate" in this analysis.

    “Risk of bias, categorized as “Low,” “Moderate,” “Serious,” or “Critical” for each domain [29], was found to be either “Low” or “Moderate” in this analysis.”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Risk of bias was rated as “Low” or “Moderate.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] Sterne JA, Hernán MA, Reeves BC, et al.. ROBINS-I: a tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. BMJ. 2016, 355:i4919. 10.1136/bmj.i4919 source
  • Premisecitation

    Underrepresented students are lost at various stages on the path to a medical career, described as a "leaky pipeline."

    “This phenomenon has been described as a “leaky pipeline,” in which underrepresented students are lost at various stages on the path to a medical career [1].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Tello C, Goode CA. Factors and barriers that influence the matriculation of underrepresented students in medicine. Front Psychol. 2023, 14:1141045. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141045 source
  • Interpretationcitation

    By promoting close guidance with individuals with shared identity, students are more likely to develop the confidence, interest, and skills to pursue higher education.

    “By promoting close guidance with individuals with shared identity, students are more likely to develop the confidence, interest, and skills to pursue higher education [6,17,23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] Crews DC, Wilson KL, Sohn J, et al.. Helping scholars overcome socioeconomic barriers to medical and biomedical careers: creating a pipeline initiative. Teach Learn Med. 2020, 32:422-33. 10.1080/10401334.2020.1729161 source
    • cites [17] Salto LM, Riggs ML, Delgado De Leon D, Casiano CA, De Leon M. Underrepresented minority high school and college students report STEM-pipeline sustaining gains after participating in the Loma Linda University Summer Health Disparities Research Program. PLoS One. 2014, 9:e108497. 10.1371/journal.pone.0108497 source

      In the Discussion section on participant-identified best practices (page unavailable), the authors say that seeing similar individuals among mentors and peers likely contributed to research confidence, and that one-to-one mentoring likely conveyed useful strategies. The same section reports gains in science-career interest and skills after the internship, but it does not establish that guidance from people with a shared identity caused all three gains or increased pursuit of higher education generally. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [23] Wang J, Kaufhold R, Wang T, et al.. Participant perceptions of using research mentorship to create a pipeline program for premedical students underrepresented in medicine. Med Sci Educ. 2025, 35:619-24. 10.1007/s40670-025-02312-z source

      The Background describes one-to-one mentorship for undergraduates underrepresented in medicine, with skills development, and reports prior evidence of improved confidence about medical-school applications. Undergraduate Research and Medical Exposure reports that participants said the program increased their interest in medicine. The paper does not establish that mentors shared students’ identities or that shared identity caused these outcomes; its findings also concern medicine rather than higher education generally. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Interpretationcitation

    Subspecialty panels can alleviate perceived barriers.

    “Following the panel, participants' interest in orthopedic surgery increased, and they were less likely to believe that gender would limit their opportunities, demonstrating the ability of subspecialty panels to alleviate perceived barriers [5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] Bergstein VE, Schmerler J, Seidenstein AH, LaPorte DM. Expanding the pipeline: exposure and female mentorship increase interest in orthopaedic surgery among female premedical undergraduate students. JB JS Open Access. 2024, 9:e24.00142. 10.2106/JBJS.OA.24.00142 source
  • May combine two claims. 52
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 23

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Research-focused programs for underrepresented undergraduate students may influence career decisions, self-confidence, and the intentions to pursue advanced education.

    “Research-focused programs for underrepresented undergraduate students may influence career decisions, self-confidence, and the intentions to pursue advanced education [12,15,17].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [12] Krecko LK, Jung S. Impacts of a clinical research program for high school students from groups historically excluded from science and medicine. Health Equity. 2022, 6:873-80. 10.1089/heq.2022.0050 source

      The Results section (“Undergraduate education and STEMM persistence of alumni”; page unavailable) reports that alumni felt the programs influenced their future professions, confidence, and plans to attend college. But the programs studied enrolled high school students, not undergraduate students, and the reported education plans concern college rather than advanced education after an undergraduate degree. The Introduction mentions graduate training as a broader outcome of pathway programs, but does not establish the full claim for undergraduate participants. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [15] Robinson SA, Menezes P, Zinck M, et al.. An internship approach to strengthen the pathway for historically underrepresented groups in health sciences research: the North Carolina diversity and inclusion pathway program. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2023, 94:S86-92. 10.1097/QAI.0000000000003271 source

      The Results section (“Opportunities and anticipated outputs from NC-DIPP”; page not provided) reports that the internship helped shape career plans and that one intern considered pursuing a PhD. The paper does not report an effect on self-confidence, and its participants included graduate as well as undergraduate students, so it does not establish all three outcomes specifically for undergraduates. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [17] Salto LM, Riggs ML, Delgado De Leon D, Casiano CA, De Leon M. Underrepresented minority high school and college students report STEM-pipeline sustaining gains after participating in the Loma Linda University Summer Health Disparities Research Program. PLoS One. 2014, 9:e108497. 10.1371/journal.pone.0108497 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Persistent academic gaps, often stemming from under-resourced K-12 education, and reliance on standardized metrics such as the MCAT and GPA contribute to leaks in the pipeline for URiM students.

    “These leaks have been linked to intersectional barriers, including persistent academic gaps (often stemming from under-resourced K-12 education) and reliance on standardized metrics such as the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) and grade point average (GPA), where score gaps persist due to a lack of academic resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Tello C, Goode CA. Factors and barriers that influence the matriculation of underrepresented students in medicine. Front Psychol. 2023, 14:1141045. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141045 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    SHPEP demonstrates the role of such programs in exposing students to professions such as dentistry, pharmacy, and public health, enabling them to consider multiple career paths and make informed decisions.

    “SHPEP demonstrates the role of such programs in exposing students to professions such as dentistry, pharmacy, and public health, enabling them to consider multiple career paths and make informed decisions [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Xirau-Probert P, Lai T, Black E, et al.. Perceived success after participation in the summer health professions education program. JAMA Netw Open. 2024, 7:e2352440. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.52440 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Likert-scale data showed increases in confidence in college preparation, self-efficacy in pursuing surgery, and interest in pursuing medical careers in the Hutchings et al. surgery mentorship program.

    “Likert-scale data showed increases in confidence in college preparation, self-efficacy in pursuing surgery, and interest in pursuing medical careers [11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Hutchings H, Chang D, Ruffin W, Mohan N, Hooper R, Brue K, Okereke I. Effect of cardiothoracic surgery mentorship on underrepresented high school students. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2024, 167:1885-90. 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2023.07.024 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Financial barriers, including the high cost of medical school, undergraduate debt for first-generation college students, and inability to pay for test-preparation materials and application fees, disproportionately affect URiM students.

    “Financial barriers are also a factor; the high cost of medical school, undergraduate debt for first-generation college students, and the inability to pay for test-preparation materials and application fees disproportionately affect URiM students [1].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1] Tello C, Goode CA. Factors and barriers that influence the matriculation of underrepresented students in medicine. Front Psychol. 2023, 14:1141045. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141045 source

      The Introduction says medical-school costs disproportionately affect lower-income applicants who may already have undergraduate debt. Results > Included studies says URiM applicants may be unable to pay for MCAT preparation or the exam itself. The paper does not specifically link undergraduate debt to first-generation students or identify application fees as a barrier. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    SHPEP offered workshops and seminars on financial literacy and was the only program to emphasize personal finance.

    “Notably, SHPEP offered workshops and seminars on financial literacy and was the only program to emphasize personal finance [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Xirau-Probert P, Lai T, Black E, et al.. Perceived success after participation in the summer health professions education program. JAMA Netw Open. 2024, 7:e2352440. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.52440 source

      The Methods section (“Workshops and Seminars”) says SHPEP workshops and seminars include financial literacy. The paper does not establish that SHPEP was the only program to emphasize personal finance. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Similar programs involving observation, mentorship, preparation, and research have been established in otolaryngology, neurology, and regenerative medicine, enabling longitudinal subspecialty mentorship, opportunities for scholarly presentations, and increased interest in graduate and medical school, as well as STEM careers.

    “Similar programs involving observation, mentorship, preparation, and research have been established in otolaryngology, neurology, and regenerative medicine, enabling longitudinal subspecialty mentorship, opportunities for scholarly presentations, and increased interest in graduate and medical school, as well as STEM careers [8,18,24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [8] Douse DM, Timothee P, O'Neill JM, et al.. Creating an undergraduate research program in Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery (OTO-HNS) for students underrepresented in medicine. Med Sci Educ. 2024, 34:617-26. 10.1007/s40670-024-02021-z source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [18] Satpathy Y, Lee M, Wong A, et al.. Near-peer mentorship in a medical-student led oncology and regenerative medicine research education program increases stem interest in underrepresented high school students. J Cancer Educ. 2025, 40:919-24. 10.1007/s13187-025-02597-z source

      Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [24] Wei XP, Diwanji D, McHenry L, et al.. Brain Camp: a summer pipeline program to increase diversity in neurosciences. Neurologist. 2022, 27:173-6. 10.1097/NRL.0000000000000409 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Krecko et al. conducted a prospective survey of eight United States high school-to-college programs funded by the Doris Duke Foundation, but did not specify the durations of these programs.

    “Krecko et al. conducted a prospective survey of eight United States high school-to-college programs funded by the Doris Duke Foundation, but did not specify the durations of these programs [12].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [12] Krecko LK, Jung S. Impacts of a clinical research program for high school students from groups historically excluded from science and medicine. Health Equity. 2022, 6:873-80. 10.1089/heq.2022.0050 source

      The Methods section confirms a survey of alumni from eight U.S. high-school-to-college programs funded by the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation. It says most programs took place during the summer but gives no precise durations. The survey was sent in 2020 to alumni who had completed the programs in 2012–2019, so describing it as prospective is not supported. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other reviews have focused on identifying barriers and protective factors or on critiquing the methodology and quality of existing programs, noting flaws and challenges in their design, evaluation, and analysis.

    “Other reviews have focused on identifying barriers and protective factors or on critiquing the methodology and quality of existing programs, noting flaws and challenges in their design, evaluation, and analysis [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] Jenkins E, Nardo JE, Salehi S. A systematic review of the 60 year literature: Effects of outreach programs in supporting historically marginalized and first-generation, low-income students in healthcare education. PLoS One. 2022, 17:e0278453. 10.1371/journal.pone.0278453 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ethnoracial concordance between physicians and their patients improves patient compliance, trust, communication, and health outcomes.

    “Furthermore, ethnoracial concordance between physicians and their patients has been shown to improve patient compliance, trust, communication, and health outcomes [1,2].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Tello C, Goode CA. Factors and barriers that influence the matriculation of underrepresented students in medicine. Front Psychol. 2023, 14:1141045. 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1141045 source

      The Introduction states that patients are more likely to follow medications and health directives when their provider's race and experiences match their own, leading to improved health outcomes. It does not state that concordance improves trust or communication; those outcomes are not established by the cited paper's text. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [2] Saha S, Komaromy M, Koepsell TD, Bindman AB. Patient-physician racial concordance and the perceived quality and use of health care. Arch Intern Med. 1999, 159:997-1004. 10.1001/archinte.159.9.997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Hands-on research and mentorship were identified as the most valuable components of the LLU program.

    “Hands-on research and mentorship were identified as the most valuable components of the program [17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [17] Salto LM, Riggs ML, Delgado De Leon D, Casiano CA, De Leon M. Underrepresented minority high school and college students report STEM-pipeline sustaining gains after participating in the Loma Linda University Summer Health Disparities Research Program. PLoS One. 2014, 9:e108497. 10.1371/journal.pone.0108497 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Programs incorporating peer and faculty mentorship components demonstrated increased interest in healthcare, higher entry into medical and graduate school, and high student-reported satisfaction.

    “Numerous programs have incorporated peer and faculty mentorship components, demonstrating increased interest in healthcare, higher entry into medical and graduate school, and high student-reported satisfaction [6,17,23].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [6] Crews DC, Wilson KL, Sohn J, et al.. Helping scholars overcome socioeconomic barriers to medical and biomedical careers: creating a pipeline initiative. Teach Learn Med. 2020, 32:422-33. 10.1080/10401334.2020.1729161 source
    • cites [17] Salto LM, Riggs ML, Delgado De Leon D, Casiano CA, De Leon M. Underrepresented minority high school and college students report STEM-pipeline sustaining gains after participating in the Loma Linda University Summer Health Disparities Research Program. PLoS One. 2014, 9:e108497. 10.1371/journal.pone.0108497 source

      The Methods describe faculty mentors and interaction with senior trainees, while the Results report affirmation of biomedical career goals and enrollment in MD and other graduate programs. Those enrollment figures do not establish higher entry than a comparison group, and the passages reviewed do not report high student satisfaction; identifying mentoring as valuable is narrower than a satisfaction finding. The indexed copy provides no page numbers for these sections. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [23] Wang J, Kaufhold R, Wang T, et al.. Participant perceptions of using research mentorship to create a pipeline program for premedical students underrepresented in medicine. Med Sci Educ. 2025, 35:619-24. 10.1007/s40670-025-02312-z source

      The Abstract describes a program pairing undergraduates with medical-student and faculty mentors, and Undergraduate Research and Medical Exposure reports that all eight surveyed undergraduates agreed it increased their interest in medicine. Limitations and Future Directions says medical-school matriculation is a future outcome to assess, not a demonstrated result. The paper reports positive feedback, but does not establish high overall student satisfaction or higher entry into medical and graduate school. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Several systematic and scoping reviews have synthesized efforts at later stages of medical training, such as interventions to increase the diversity of residency programs or to mentor students already enrolled in graduate medical education.

    “Several systematic and scoping reviews have synthesized efforts at later stages of medical training, such as interventions to increase the diversity of residency programs or to mentor students already enrolled in graduate medical education [3,31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [3] Feeley AA, Feeley IH, Sheehan E, Carroll C, Queally J. Impact of mentoring for underrepresented groups in undergraduate medical education: a systematic review. J Surg Educ. 2024, 81:353-66. 10.1016/j.jsurg.2023.11.015 source
    • cites [31] Mabeza RM, Christophers B, Ederaine SA, Glenn EJ, Benton-Slocum ZP, Marcelin JR. Interventions associated with racial and ethnic diversity in US graduate medical education: a scoping review. JAMA Netw Open. 2023, 6:e2249335. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.49335 source

      The Introduction and Conclusions identify this paper as a scoping review of interventions to increase racial and ethnic diversity in US graduate medical education programs. Its Recruitment section describes mentorship for medical students before residency, not mentorship for students already enrolled in graduate medical education. The latter part of the citing sentence is therefore not supported by this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Such programs foster greater interest and promote improved self-confidence by making rigorous fields more approachable.

    “Thus, such programs foster greater interest and promote improved self-confidence by making rigorous fields more approachable [11].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [11] Hutchings H, Chang D, Ruffin W, Mohan N, Hooper R, Brue K, Okereke I. Effect of cardiothoracic surgery mentorship on underrepresented high school students. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2024, 167:1885-90. 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2023.07.024 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Barriers that hinder training success for underrepresented students include limited access to mentors with similar identities, insufficient institutional policies involving maternity leave or protected disabilities, stereotype threat, imposter syndrome, and experiences of bias and discrimination.

    “Barriers that hinder training success for underrepresented students include limited access to mentors with similar identities, insufficient institutional policies involving maternity leave or protected disabilities, stereotype threat (fear of confirming negative stereotypes about their group), imposter syndrome, and experiences of bias and discrimination [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Torres Acosta MA, Chandra S, Li S, Yoon E, Selgrade D, Quinn J, Ardehali H. The impact of underrepresented minority or marginalized identity status on training outcomes of MD-PhD students. BMC Med Educ. 2023, 23:428. 10.1186/s12909-023-04399-7 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Papp et al. found increased self-reported knowledge and quiz performance following Asclepius Medical Camp.

    “These findings are supported by a survey study conducted by Papp et al., which focused on 50 youth participants attending Asclepius Medical Camp and provided participants with information about medical careers, resulting in increased self-reported knowledge and quiz performance following the camp [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Papp KM, Krysler AR, Lee S, Ross S. Mini med school: Knowledge and resources for underrepresented in medicine youth. Fam Med. 2025, 57:218-21. 10.22454/FamMed.2024.388919 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Such hands-on experiences may cultivate lasting interest in healthcare professions and promote greater understanding of career opportunities.

    “Such hands-on experiences may cultivate lasting interest in healthcare professions and promote greater understanding of career opportunities [10].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Goldsmith CA, Tran TT, Tran L. An educational program for underserved middle school students to encourage pursuit of Pharmacy and other health science careers. Am J Pharm Educ. 2014, 78:167. 10.5688/ajpe789167 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Due to socioeconomic barriers faced by underrepresented, first-generation, and low-income groups, access to educational and financial resources, loan and scholarship opportunities, and understanding of personal finance are critical.

    “Due to socioeconomic barriers faced by underrepresented, first-generation, and low-income groups, access to educational and financial resources, loan and scholarship opportunities, and understanding of personal finance are critical [27].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Xirau-Probert P, Lai T, Black E, et al.. Perceived success after participation in the summer health professions education program. JAMA Netw Open. 2024, 7:e2352440. 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.52440 source

      The Introduction identifies low socioeconomic status and attendance at institutions with limited resources as challenges for underrepresented students. The Methods describe academic enrichment and financial-literacy education as ways the program helps students prepare for health-professional school. However, the passages do not address access to loans or scholarships, or establish the full claim for first-generation and low-income groups specifically (searched: loans, scholarships, financial resources). (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Survey results showed increased knowledge of pharmacist and PA roles and heightened interest in health careers.

    “Survey results showed increased knowledge of pharmacist and PA roles and heightened interest in health careers [10].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Goldsmith CA, Tran TT, Tran L. An educational program for underserved middle school students to encourage pursuit of Pharmacy and other health science careers. Am J Pharm Educ. 2014, 78:167. 10.5688/ajpe789167 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The most common core components in early exposure programs were mentorship (n=18) and research (n=13).

    “The most common core components in early exposure programs were mentorship (n=18) and research (n=13).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    One study reported durations of one week for 5th graders, eight weeks for high school students, and 10 weeks for undergraduate students.

    “Notably, one study reported durations of one week for 5th graders, eight weeks for high school students, and 10 weeks for undergraduate students [6].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Crews DC, Wilson KL, Sohn J, et al.. Helping scholars overcome socioeconomic barriers to medical and biomedical careers: creating a pipeline initiative. Teach Learn Med. 2020, 32:422-33. 10.1080/10401334.2020.1729161 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    A total of 464 studies were identified from the databases searched.

    “A total of 464 studies were identified from the databases searched, and 459 were selected for screening after duplicates were removed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Experiences beyond didactics, including anatomy practicals and shadowing, increased high school graduation rates, the pursuit of science degrees, and interest in health professions.

    “Experiences beyond didactics, including anatomy practicals and shadowing, increased high school graduation rates, the pursuit of science degrees, and interest in health professions [7,21,25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [7] Danner OK, Lokko C, Mobley F, et al.. Hospital-based, multidisciplinary, youth mentoring and medical exposure program positively influences and reinforces health care career choice: "The Reach One Each One Program early Experience". Am J Surg. 2017, 213:611-16. 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.12.002 source
    • cites [21] Stewart KA, Brown SL, Wrensford G, Hurley MM. Creating a comprehensive approach to exposing underrepresented pre-health professions students to clinical medicine and health research. J Natl Med Assoc. 2020, 112:36-43. 10.1016/j.jnma.2019.12.003 source
    • cites [25] Winkleby MA. The Stanford Medical Youth Science program: 18 years of a biomedical program for low-income high school students. Acad Med. 2007, 82:139-45. 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31802d8de6 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mentorship and research are associated with increased likelihood of further education and the pursuit of biomedical/STEM degrees.

    “Mentorship and research emerged as the most prominent components, associated with increased likelihood of further education and the pursuit of biomedical/STEM degrees.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants in the Building Foundations program reported high satisfaction and perceived benefits, including strong endorsement of the program, increased interest in anesthesiology, and perceived gains in mentorship, networking, and medical school readiness.

    “Participants reported high satisfaction and perceived benefits, including strong endorsement of the program, increased interest in anesthesiology, and perceived gains in mentorship, networking, and medical school readiness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The remaining 22 programs ranged from one day to three years.

    “The remaining 22 programs ranged from one day to three years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The remaining 39 manuscripts underwent full-text review.

    “The remaining 39 manuscripts underwent full-text review and were evaluated for scope and methodological rigor, resulting in the exclusion of 15 articles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Six of seven programs associated with increased biomedical and STEM degrees were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.

    “Three of four programs associated with improved academic performance, seven of nine associated with increased further education, and six of seven associated with increased biomedical and STEM degrees were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Seven of nine programs associated with increased further education were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.

    “Three of four programs associated with improved academic performance, seven of nine associated with increased further education, and six of seven associated with increased biomedical and STEM degrees were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Other components found in early exposure programs were observership experience (n=5), subspecialty exposure (n=5), multiprofession exposure (n=3), standardized exam preparation (n=2), and financial literacy (n=1).

    “Other components found in early exposure programs were observership experience (n=5), subspecialty exposure (n=5), multiprofession exposure (n=3), standardized exam preparation (n=2), and financial literacy (n=1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Short programs demonstrated the ability to increase interest in medicine, enhance self-efficacy, reduce perceived barriers, and increase understanding of medical careers.

    “Notably, while short programs demonstrated the ability to increase interest in medicine, enhance self-efficacy, reduce perceived barriers, and increase understanding of medical careers, certain outcomes were limited to programs with longer duration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Longer program duration is associated with improved academic performance and increased higher education.

    “Program duration varied from one day to three years, with longer programs associated with improved academic performance and increased higher education.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    After duplicates were removed, 459 studies were selected for screening.

    “A total of 464 studies were identified from the databases searched, and 459 were selected for screening after duplicates were removed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The most frequently reported outcomes were further education (n=10), more students pursuing biomedical and STEM degrees (n=8), increased interest in medicine (n=7), improved academic performance (n=4), and greater self-efficacy (n=4).

    “The most frequently reported outcomes were further education (n=10), more students pursuing biomedical and STEM degrees (n=8), increased interest in medicine (n=7), improved academic performance (n=4), and greater self-efficacy (n=4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The primary participant education level was high school (n=14), followed by undergraduate (n=8), post-baccalaureate (n=4), and middle school (n=2).

    “The primary participant education level was high school (n=14), followed by undergraduate (n=8), post-baccalaureate (n=4), and middle school (n=2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    There is a substantial and heterogeneous body of literature evaluating early exposure to medical programs targeting underrepresented students.

    “There is a substantial and heterogeneous body of literature evaluating early exposure to medical programs targeting underrepresented students.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Three of four programs associated with improved academic performance were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.

    “Three of four programs associated with improved academic performance, seven of nine associated with increased further education, and six of seven associated with increased biomedical and STEM degrees were classified as long duration, with the remaining programs classified as moderate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Full-text review resulted in the exclusion of 15 articles.

    “The remaining 39 manuscripts underwent full-text review and were evaluated for scope and methodological rigor, resulting in the exclusion of 15 articles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Bias was "Moderate" almost universally for domains 1 and 2, likely due to difficulty controlling for confounding variables in qualitative endpoint analyses, intersectional barriers, and the nature of programs targeting a non-random URiM-focused student population.

    “Bias was “Moderate” almost universally for domains 1 and 2, likely due to the difficulty controlling for confounding variables in the qualitative endpoint analyses, intersectional barriers, and the nature of programs targeting a non-random URiM-focused student population.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Program durations varied: short (≤1 week, n=4), moderate (2-6 weeks, n=5), long (7-12 weeks, n=9), and extended (≥1 year, n=4).

    “Program durations varied widely: short (≤1 week, n=4), moderate (2-6 weeks, n=5), long (7-12 weeks, n=9), and extended (≥1 year, n=4).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    After abstract review, 420 manuscripts were excluded because they were reviews, non-primary articles, or did not meet the inclusion criteria.

    “After reviewing the abstracts, 420 manuscripts were excluded because they were reviews, non-primary articles, or did not meet the inclusion criteria.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Mentorship was the most frequently reported component associated with positive outcomes, with participants reporting benefits from mentorship experiences across programs.

    “Across early exposure programs, multiple themes emerge; however, mentorship was the most frequently reported component associated with positive outcomes, with participants reporting benefits from mentorship experiences across programs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Increased interest in medicine, greater enrollment in biomedical and STEM degrees, higher rates of further education, and improved academic performance were significantly associated with longer program duration.

    “These outcomes, along with improved academic performance, were significantly associated with longer program duration, indicating that longer exposure to the medical field may be required to transform interest into lasting educational achievement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The most frequently reported outcomes included increased interest in medicine, greater enrollment in biomedical and STEM degrees, and higher rates of further education.

    “The most frequently reported outcomes included increased interest in medicine, greater enrollment in biomedical and STEM degrees, and higher rates of further education.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Mentorship and research were the most frequently featured components, with students reporting benefits from these components.

    “Mentorship and research were the most frequently featured components, with students reporting benefits from these components.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Mentorship and research were the most prominent components, with high student-reported value.

    “Mentorship and research were the most prominent components, with high student-reported value, and were associated with increased further education and biomedical/STEM degrees.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Early exposure of underrepresented students to medicine has been shown to yield benefits, including increased interest in medicine, higher completion rates in biomedical and STEM degrees, greater understanding of career options, increased self-efficacy and confidence, reduced perceived barriers, and improved academic performance.

    “Overall, early exposure of underrepresented students to medicine has been shown to yield benefits, including increased interest in medicine, higher completion rates in biomedical and STEM degrees, greater understanding of career options, increased self-efficacy and confidence, reduced perceived barriers, and improved academic performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Mentorship and research were associated with increased further education and biomedical/STEM degrees.

    “Mentorship and research were the most prominent components, with high student-reported value, and were associated with increased further education and biomedical/STEM degrees.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Early exposure programs have provided opportunities for marginalized populations, enabled the development of research skills, fostered mentorship relationships, and cultivated interest in healthcare.

    “Early exposure programs have provided opportunities for marginalized populations, enabled the development of research skills, fostered mentorship relationships, and cultivated interest in healthcare [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Guevara JP, Wade R, Aysola J. Racial and ethnic diversity at medical schools - why aren’t we there yet?. N Engl J Med. 2021, 385:1732-4. 10.1056/NEJMp2105578 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-I V2 scale across seven bias domains.

    “The Risk of Bias in Non-randomized Studies of Interventions, (ROBINS-I) V2 scale was used to assess risk of bias. Each of the 24 studies was evaluated across seven bias domains: confounding, participant selection, classification of interventions, deviations from intended interventions, missing data, measurement of outcomes, and selection of the reported results.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Quality assessments were made by two reviewers with high inter-rater reliability.

    “The assessments were made by two reviewers with high inter-rater reliability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Institutions have begun implementing targeted "pipeline" or "outreach" programs designed to reach URiM students and provide support and career development in healthcare.

    “To address these challenges, institutions have begun implementing targeted “pipeline” or “outreach” programs designed to reach URiM students and provide support and career development in healthcare.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Feeley AA, Feeley IH, Sheehan E, Carroll C, Queally J. Impact of mentoring for underrepresented groups in undergraduate medical education: a systematic review. J Surg Educ. 2024, 81:353-66. 10.1016/j.jsurg.2023.11.015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Systemic inequities that limit student recruitment and promotion, lack of comparable educational resources due to location or socioeconomic status, the financial burden of applications and examinations, and a lack of underrepresented role models contribute to this situation.

    “Systemic inequities that limit student recruitment and promotion, lack of comparable educational resources due to location or socioeconomic status, the financial burden of applications and examinations, and a lack of underrepresented role models all contribute to this situation [34].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] Guevara JP, Wade R, Aysola J. Racial and ethnic diversity at medical schools - why aren’t we there yet?. N Engl J Med. 2021, 385:1732-4. 10.1056/NEJMp2105578 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Studies meeting inclusion criteria were screened by the Oxford Levels of Evidence criteria, and studies below Level of Evidence 2C were excluded.

    “The studies that met the inclusion criteria were also screened by the Oxford Levels of Evidence criteria [30]. Studies below Level of Evidence of 2C were excluded.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [30] OCEBM levels of evidence. Accessed. May 21, 2026: https://www.cebm.ox.ac.uk/resources/levels-of-evidence/ocebm-levels-of-evidence.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Integrating more research experiences into pipeline programs may cultivate multidisciplinary skills and foster interest in medicine.

    “Therefore, integrating more research experiences into pipeline programs may cultivate multidisciplinary skills and foster interest in medicine.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Two reviewers independently screened the literature for accuracy, with discrepancies resolved by consensus.

    “Two reviewers independently screened the literature for accuracy, with discrepancies resolved by consensus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review searched PubMed, Cochrane, and ScienceDirect databases from April 1999 to October 2025.

    “Our review was derived from PubMed, Cochrane, and ScienceDirect databases from April 1999 to October 2025, including retrospective analyses, cohort studies, prospective surveys, and thematic analyses with quantitative data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The risk of bias assessment was first made independently by two authors and discussed with another author to resolve discrepancies by consensus.

    “This assessment was first made independently by two authors and discussed with another author to resolve discrepancies by consensus.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Enhanced physician cultural competence may improve patient care for minority groups, thereby mitigating health disparities.

    “Moreover, enhanced physician cultural competence may improve patient care for minority groups, thereby mitigating health disparities [2].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Saha S, Komaromy M, Koepsell TD, Bindman AB. Patient-physician racial concordance and the perceived quality and use of health care. Arch Intern Med. 1999, 159:997-1004. 10.1001/archinte.159.9.997 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines.

    “A total of 24 studies met the inclusion criteria and were retained for synthesis in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Figure 1) [4-28].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4-28]

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The included studies were verified not to be redundantly represented in prior systematic reviews.

    “We verified that these studies were not redundantly represented in prior systematic reviews.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Limited sample sizes and high program frequency in larger academic institutions limit the generalizability of findings.

    “Lastly, limited sample sizes and high program frequency in larger academic institutions limit the generalizability of findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The review has a notable limitation of heterogeneity of included programs, which employ various instructional approaches, durations, support methods, target demographics, and outcome measures, with reliance on short-term, self-reported outcomes, limiting comparability and longitudinal assessment.

    “One notable limitation is the heterogeneity of included programs, which employ various instructional approaches, durations, support methods, target demographics, and outcome measures, with reliance on short-term, self-reported outcomes, limiting comparability and longitudinal assessment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Improvements in academic performance are especially meaningful for students from marginalized backgrounds who may have limited access to academic support resources.

    “Four of the 24 studies included in this review reported improvements in academic performance, an especially meaningful outcome for students from marginalized backgrounds who may have limited access to academic support resources.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall, early exposure programs have demonstrated multifactorial benefits that may build interest in medicine, translating to preparedness and opportunities that underrepresented students have traditionally lacked.

    “Overall, early exposure programs have demonstrated multifactorial benefits that may build interest in medicine, translating to preparedness and opportunities that underrepresented students have traditionally lacked.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Underrepresented students have traditionally lacked preparedness and opportunities.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    By promoting greater understanding of medical careers and opportunities, students may develop expectations and plans towards a profession while developing preparedness.

    “By promoting greater understanding of medical careers and opportunities, students may develop expectations and plans towards a profession while developing preparedness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    These programs have the potential to expose students to medical subspecialties and to health professions beyond medicine (e.g., dentistry, public health, pharmacy).

    “These programs have the potential to expose students to medical subspecialties and to health professions beyond medicine (e.g., dentistry, public health, pharmacy).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Early exposure programs can help build a more diverse population and further progress within the healthcare complex.

    “Emerging research indicates that a more diverse student and physician population has positive effects on the healthcare system, and early exposure programs can help build a more diverse population and further progress within the healthcare complex.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: A more diverse student and physician population has positive effects on the healthcare system.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Early exposure programs for underrepresented students help diversify and promote interest in professions.

    “Early exposure programs for underrepresented students help diversify and promote interest in professions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Students applying to pipeline programs may have higher baseline interest in medicine than their peers, making it challenging to isolate program effects, especially with the lack of control groups limiting causality.

    “Ultimately, students applying to pipeline programs may have higher baseline interest in medicine than their peers, making it challenging to isolate program effects, especially with the lack of control groups limiting causality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
70 of 70

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The United States physician workforce does not adequately reflect the nation’s demographic diversity.

    “Despite decades of initiatives, the physician workforce in the United States does not adequately reflect the nation’s demographics.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A healthcare workforce that mirrors its community can more effectively serve patients and reduce health disparities.

    “This disconnect is a critical issue because a healthcare workforce that mirrors its community can more effectively serve patients and reduce health disparities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Physicians from underrepresented in medicine backgrounds are more likely to serve in medically underserved communities.

    “Studies have consistently shown that physicians from underrepresented in medicine (URiM) backgrounds are more likely to serve in medically underserved communities.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A significant gap remains in the literature on a comprehensive analysis of the structure, core components, and overall efficacy of early medical exposure programs.

    “Despite these efforts, a significant gap remains in the literature on a comprehensive analysis of structure, core components, and overall efficacy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A more diverse student and physician population has positive effects on the healthcare system.

    “Emerging research indicates that a more diverse student and physician population has positive effects on the healthcare system, and early exposure programs can help build a more diverse population and further progress within the healthcare complex.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Underrepresented students have traditionally lacked preparedness and opportunities.

    “Overall, early exposure programs have demonstrated multifactorial benefits that may build interest in medicine, translating to preparedness and opportunities that underrepresented students have traditionally lacked.”
6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Academic-outcome table omits a study identified elsewhere

    Minor

    Table 1 explicitly reports improved academic outcomes for Schneid et al. [19], but Table 4's list of studies reporting improved academic performance omits [19].

  • Research biomedical/STEM-degree count is one too low

    Minor

    Seven of Table 4's eight biomedical/STEM-degree studies appear in Table 3's research list; only [7] does not. The reported research-associated count is six.

  • Mentorship further-education count is one too low

    Minor

    All ten studies listed for increased further education in Table 4 also appear in Table 3's mentorship list, rather than nine.

  • Mentorship biomedical/STEM-degree count is one too low

    Minor

    All eight studies listed for increased biomedical and STEM degrees in Table 4 also appear in Table 3's mentorship list, rather than seven.

  • Research further-education count is one too low

    Minor

    Eight further-education studies in Table 4-[6], [8], [12], [16], [17], [18], [21], and [25]-also appear in Table 3's research list, rather than seven.

5 of 5

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Authors
Jaganathan, N., Guntaka, R., Goel, V., Odo, N., Sun, Z., & Arthur, M. E.
Affiliations
Augusta University (US)
Corresponding author
Jaganathan, Nikhil
ORCID
Venue
Cureus
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2026-05-21
Volume
18
Issue
5
Pages
e109396-e109396
ISSN
2168-8184 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.7759/cureus.109396
PMC
PMC13283067
OpenAlex
W7162033531
Cited by
0
References
33
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Cureus (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Diversity and Career in Medicine
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Medical Education and Admissions
Keywords
underrepresented students, medical outreach, physician workforce diversity, mentoring, research experience, self-efficacy, academic performance, STEM degree attainment, high school students, undergraduate students, barriers to medical education

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-11-03.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-11-03.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review