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Effect of Continuous Glucose Monitoring on Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Treated With Basal Insulin: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Open accessAbstract
Importance: Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) has been shown to be beneficial for adults with type 2 diabetes using intensive insulin therapy, but its use in type 2 diabetes treated with basal insulin without prandial insulin has not been well studied. Objective: To determine the effectiveness of CGM in adults with type 2 diabetes treated with basal insulin without prandial insulin in primary care practices. Design, Setting, and Participants: This randomized clinical trial was conducted at 15 centers in the US (enrollment from July 30, 2018, to October 30, 2019; follow-up completed July 7, 2020) and included adults with type 2 diabetes receiving their diabetes care from a primary care clinician and treated with 1 or 2 daily injections of long- or intermediate-acting basal insulin without prandial insulin, with or without noninsulin glucose-lowering medications. Interventions: Random assignment 2:1 to CGM (n = 116) or traditional blood glucose meter (BGM) monitoring (n = 59). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) level at 8 months. Key secondary outcomes were CGM-measured time in target glucose range of 70 to 180 mg/dL, time with glucose level at greater than 250 mg/dL, and mean glucose level at 8 months. Results: Among 175 randomized participants (mean [SD] age, 57 [9] years; 88 women [50%]; 92 racial/ethnic minority individuals [53%]; mean [SD] baseline HbA1c level, 9.1% [0.9%]), 165 (94%) completed the trial. Mean HbA1c level decreased from 9.1% at baseline to 8.0% at 8 months in the CGM group and from 9.0% to 8.4% in the BGM group (adjusted difference, -0.4% [95% CI, -0.8% to -0.1%]; P = .02). In the CGM group, compared with the BGM group, the mean percentage of CGM-measured time in the target glucose range of 70 to 180 mg/dL was 59% vs 43% (adjusted difference, 15% [95% CI, 8% to 23%]; P < .001), the mean percentage of time at greater than 250 mg/dL was 11% vs 27% (adjusted difference, -16% [95% CI, -21% to -11%]; P < .001), and the means of the mean glucose values were 179 mg/dL vs 206 mg/dL (adjusted difference, -26 mg/dL [95% CI, -41 to -12]; P < .001). Severe hypoglycemic events occurred in 1 participant (1%) in the CGM group and in 1 (2%) in the BGM group. Conclusions and Relevance: Among adults with poorly controlled type 2 diabetes treated with basal insulin without prandial insulin, continuous glucose monitoring, as compared with blood glucose meter monitoring, resulted in significantly lower HbA1c levels at 8 months. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03566693.
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“Benefits of CGM in this population include reductions in A1C, fewer severe hypoglycemia events in children and adults, increased TIR, as well as significant reductions in hospitalizations for severe hypoglycemia and DKA.156,162–168”
From American Association of Clinical Endocrinology Clinical Practice Guideline: Developing a Diabetes Mellitus Comprehensive Care Plan-2022 Update. (2022) · cites this paper as [167]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“Continuous glucose monitoring for adults with type 2 diabetes (both those using and not using insulin)24,25 also achieves improved glycated haemoglobin concentrations without impacting the rate of hypoglycaemia.”
From Blood glucose monitoring devices: current considerations (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
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“Randomized controlled trials of the use of rt-CGM, compared with standard blood glucose monitoring, in adults with type 2 diabetes have generally shown reductions in HbA 1c with no significant change in time in hypoglycemia (169-172).”
From Guidelines and Recommendations for Laboratory Analysis in the Diagnosis and Management of Diabetes Mellitus (2023) · cites this paper as [172]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“RCT data on rtCGM use in individuals with type 2 diabetes on MDI (59), mixed therapies (10, 60), and basal insulin (61,62) have consistently shown reductions in A1C levels and increases in TIR (70-180 mg/dL [3.9-10 mmol/L]) but not a reduction in rates of hypoglycemia (63).”
From 7. Diabetes Technology: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2025 (2025) · cites this paper as [61]
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Self-citationIdentifying the deficiencies of currently available CGM to improve uptake and benefit
Barnard‐Kelly, K. D., Martínez‐Brocca, M. A., Glatzer, T., & Oliver, N. (2024) · Diabetic Medicine · doi:10.1111/dme.15338 · Cited by 37
Reddy, M., & Oliver, N. S. (2024) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15504 · Cited by 42
Isitt, J. J., Roze, S., Sharland, H., Cogswell, G., Alshannaq, H. A., Norman, G. J., & Lynch, P. M. (2022) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-022-01324-x · Cited by 40
Kim, J. Y., Jin, S.-M., Sim, K. H., Kim, B.-Y., Cho, J. H., Moon, J. S., Lim, S., Kang, E. S., Park, C.-Y., Kim, S. G., et al. (2024) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-024-06152-1 · Cited by 36
Zhang, Z., Wang, Y., Lu, J., & Zhou, J. (2024) · Diabetes Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.16033 · Cited by 37
“6 As CGM has gained progressively wider clinical application, new metrics derived from this technology have emerged, including time in range (TIR 3.9 – 10.0 13 Hence, TIR has been consistently recommended by international consensus statements and guidelines as a valid measure of glycemic control.”
InfluentialLu, J., Ying, Z., Wang, P., Fu, M., Han, C., & Zhang, M. (2024) · Diabetes, Obesity and Metabolism · doi:10.1111/dom.15328 · Cited by 39
Czupryniak, L., Dzida, G. J., Fichna, P., Jarosz-Chobot, P. A., Gumprecht, J., Klupa, T., Myśliwiec, M., Szadkowska, A., Bomba-Opon, D. A., Czajkowski, K., et al. (2022) · Diabetes Therapy · doi:10.1007/s13300-022-01229-9 · Cited by 35
“Importantly, the use of CGM systems is proven to reduce HbA1c in people with type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes [3] on intensive insulin therapy, but they are equally effective for people with type 2 diabetes on basal insulin therapy only [4, 5] or those on non-insulin therapy [4].”
BackgroundKong, S.-Y., & Cho, M.-K. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12050571 · Cited by 36
Zelada, H., Perez‐Guzman, M. C., Cherñavvsky, D. R., & Galindo, R. J. (2023) · Endocrine Connections · doi:10.1530/ec-23-0180 · Cited by 34
“Interestingly, there is also evidence of its benefits in reducing HbA1C in people with T2D on long-acting basal insulin (23).”
BackgroundNathanson, D., Eeg‐Olofsson, K., Spelman, T. D., Bülow, E., Kyhlstedt, M., Levrat‐Guillen, F., & Bolinder, J. (2024) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-024-06289-z · Cited by 34
Aleppo, G., Hirsch, I. B., Parkin, C. G., McGill, J., Galindo, R., Kruger, D. F., Levy, C. J., Forlenza, G. P., Umpierrez, G. E., Grunberger, G., et al. (2023) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2023.0268 · Cited by 34
Self-citationJohnston, A. R., Poll, J. B., Hays, E., & Jones, C. W. (2022) · Diabetes Epidemiology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.deman.2022.100068 · Cited by 33
Continuous Glucose Monitoring to Optimize Management of Diabetes in Patients with Advanced CKD
Galindo, R. J., de Boer, I. H., Neumiller, J. J., & Tuttle, K. R. (2022) · Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology · doi:10.2215/cjn.04510422 · Cited by 35
Prasad‐Reddy, L., Godina, A., Chetty, A. K., Close Concerns, S. F., & Isaacs, D. (2022) · touchREVIEWS in Endocrinology · doi:10.17925/ee.2022.18.2.116 · Cited by 36
Accuracy of continuous glucose monitoring in the hospital setting: an observational study
O’Connor, M. Y., Flint, K. L., Sabean, A., Ashley, A. L., Zheng, H., Yan, J., Steiner, B. A., Anandakugan, N., CALVERLEY, M. M., Bartholomew, R. A., et al. (2024) · Diabetologia · doi:10.1007/s00125-024-06250-0 · Cited by 35
“In the outpatient setting, continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) has been shown to improve glycaemic control in people with diabetes [10–13], and has been approved by regulatory agencies for use in determination of appropriate insulin dosing without the need for fingerstick glucose confirmation.”
Accuracy of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Hemodialysis Patients With Diabetes
Narasaki, Y., Kalantar‐Zadeh, K., Daza, A. C., You, A. S., Novoa, A., Peralta, R. A., Siu, M. K. M., Nguyen, D. V., & Rhee, C. M. (2024) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc24-0635 · Cited by 34
Consensus Report on the Use of Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Chronic Kidney Disease and Diabetes
Rhee, C. M., Gianchandani, R. Y., Kerr, D. E., Philis‐Tsimikas, A., Kovesdy, C. P., Stanton, R. C., Drincic, A., Galindo, R. J., Kalantar‐Zadeh, K., Neumiller, J. J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/19322968241292041 · Cited by 34
“109,164,165 Motivated by these observations, DTS convened a panel of experts in nephrology and diabetes to review and discuss the current state of evidence, challenges, and future research directions centered on the use of CGM technology in patients with diabetes and CKD. Conclusions were based on…”
Self-citationBattelino, T., Lalic, N. M., Hussain, S., Ceriello, A., Majanović, S. K., Davies, S., Topsever, P., Heverly, J., Ulivi, F., Brady, K., et al. (2025) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2025.112111 · Cited by 34
Davis, G. M., Bailey, R. J., Calhoun, P. M., Price, D. A., & Beck, R. W. (2021) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2021.0489 · Cited by 33
“9% and mean (–SD) baseline TIR 70–180 mg/dL was 40% – 25%.(21,22) Potential participants were recruited from primary care practices and were not under the care of an endocrinologist to manage their diabetes.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationNorman, G. J., Paudel, M. L., Parkin, C. G., Bancroft, T., & Lynch, P. M. (2022) · Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1089/dia.2021.0525 · Cited by 32
“…and real-world retrospective and prospective observational studies, use of rtCGM facilitates reductions in glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), 11–17 increased time in target glucose range 11–17 and reductions in hypoglycemia risk, 18 with corresponding reductions in diabetes-related hospitalizations.”
Blood Glucose Level Time Series Forecasting: Nested Deep Ensemble Learning Lag Fusion
Khadem, H., Nemat, H., Elliott, D., & Benaissa, M. (2023) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering10040487 · Cited by 36
“For example, technological breakthroughs, such as continuous glucose monitoring biosensors [17,18] and insulin pumps [19,20], nowadays, serve myriads of type 1 diabetes patients.”
BackgroundAlkabbani, W., CROMER, S. J., Kim, D. H., Paik, J. M., Bykov, K., Munshi, M. N., Wexler, D. J., & Patorno, E. (2025) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dca25-0006 · Cited by 30
Porter, M., Fonda, S. J., Swigert, T. J., & Ehrhardt, N. M. (2021) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/19322968211053886 · Cited by 28
Wearable Microfluidics for Continuous Assay
Lin, P.-H., Nien, H.-H., & Li, B.-R. (2023) · Annual Review of Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1146/annurev-anchem-091322-082930 · Cited by 28
Szmuilowicz, E. D., & Aleppo, G. (2022) · Postgraduate Medicine · doi:10.1080/00325481.2022.2110507 · Cited by 27
Diabetes: the role of continuous glucose monitoring
Kluemper, J. R., Smith, A. C., & Wobeter, B. R. (2022) · Drugs in Context · doi:10.7573/dic.2021-9-13 · Cited by 30
Shields, S., Thomas, R., Durham, J., Moran, J., Clary, J., & Ciemins, E. L. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-83548-4 · Cited by 28
Omotosho, I. A., Shamsuddin, N., Huri, H. Z., Chong, W. L., & Rehman, I. U. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26146909 · Cited by 29
“%) in insulin-treated patients, surpassing traditional blood glucose meters (BGM) [39].”
NiNP/Cu-MOF-C/GCE for the the noninvasive detection of glucose in natural saliva samples
Feng, L., Lin, X., Feng, J., Min, X., & Ni, Y. (2023) · Microchemical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.microc.2023.108657 · Cited by 26
Short-term use of CGM in youth onset type 2 diabetes is associated with behavioral modifications
Manfredo, J., Lin, T., Gupta, R., Abiola, K., West, M., Busin, K., Tracey, J., Brown, E. A., Magge, S. N., & Wolf, R. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1182260 · Cited by 25
Estimating Glycemia From HbA1c and CGM: Analysis of Accuracy and Sources of Discrepancy
Tozzo, V., Genco, M. T., Omololu, S. O., Mow, C., Patel, H. R., Patel, C. H., Ho, S. N., Lam, E., Abdulsater, B., Patel, N., et al. (2024) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc23-1177 · Cited by 28
Lu, Y., Liu, D., Liang, Z., Liu, R., Chen, P., Liu, Y., Li, J., Feng, Z., Li, L. M., Sheng, B., et al. (2025) · National Science Review · doi:10.1093/nsr/nwaf039 · Cited by 35
“Evidence from clinical research has demonstrated that CGM devices can improve glycemic con-trol for people with T2DM, as well as more-timely treatment intensification, lower risk of diabetes complications and hospital admissions [86 –88 ].”
Wafa, I. A., Pratama, N. R., Sofia, N. F., Anastasia, E. S., Konstantin, T., Wijaya, M. A., Wiyono, M. R., Djuari, L., & Novida, H. (2022) · Diabetes & Metabolism Journal · doi:10.4093/dmj.2021.0125 · Cited by 24
Kalyani, R. R., Allende-Vigo, M. Z., Antinori-Lent, K. J., Close, K. L., Das, S. R., Deroze, P., Edelman, S. V., El Sayed, N. A., Kerr, D., Neumiller, J. J., et al. (2024) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgad745 · Cited by 25
From reactive to proactive: Continuous protein monitoring for preventive health care
Donnelly, J. M., Neff, R. A., Sedlack, A. J. H., Juska, V. B., Ayala‐Cardona, L. F., Bass, J. T., McNally, E. M., Shah, S. J., Alshurafa, N. I., Kimchi, E. Y., et al. (2025) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.ady6497 · Cited by 26
Glycaemic control in people with diabetes following acute myocardial infarction
Esdaile, H., Hill, N. E., Mayet, J., & Oliver, N. S. (2023) · Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2023.110644 · Cited by 28
Interruption of Continuous Glucose Monitoring: Frequency and Adverse Consequences
Markov, A. M., Krutilova, P., Cedeno, A., McGill, J. B., & McKee, A. M. (2023) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/19322968231156572 · Cited by 24
Self-citationSamson, S. L., Vellanki, P., Blonde, L., Hirsch, I. B., Hoang, T. D., Isaacs, S. D., Izuora, K. E., Wang, C. C. L., Ooi, C. P., Padilla, B. I., et al. (2026) · Endocrine Practice · doi:10.1016/j.eprac.2026.01.006 · Cited by 29
Self-citationContinuous Glucose Monitoring in Older Adults: What We Know and What We Have Yet to Learn
Price, C. E., Callahan, K. E., Aloi, J., & Usoh, C. O. (2024) · Journal of Diabetes Science and Technology · doi:10.1177/19322968241234651 · Cited by 25
“16 Similar HbA1c lowering was noted in the RCT by Martens et al 17 who evaluated adults with T2DM managed with MDI or noninsulin glycemic medications, noting a reduction by −1.1% in the CGM arm versus −0.6% Hb A1c reduction in the FSBG arm.”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Martens, T., Beck, R. W., Bailey, R., Ruedy, K. J., Calhoun, P., Peters, A. L., Pop-Busui, R., Philis-Tsimikas, A., Bao, S., Umpierrez, G., Davis, G., Kruger, D., Bhargava, A., Young, L., McGill, J. B., Aleppo, G., Nguyen, Q. T., Orozco, I., Biggs, W., Lucas, K. J., Polonsky, W. H., Buse, J. B., Price, D., Bergenstal, R. M., MOBILE Study Group, Carlson, A., Chambers, S., Yang, S., Kirkman, M. S., Kass, A., Fraser, R., Cushman, T., Ramos, C., Magar, M., Walker, M., Serafin-Dokhan, S., Salam, M., Hurst, S., Clifton, M. J., Kravarusic, J., Bansal, A., Fulkerson, C., Ang, L., Richardson, C., Mizokami-Stout, K., Reiss, J., Leone, V., Stifel, K., Dailey, G., Change, A., McCallum, J., Garcia, M. I., Davis, D., Lovell, C., Root, C., Toler, F., Wilhelm, L., Eifert, R., Murguia, L., Cota, B., Nguyen, L., Lipski, R., Lawrence, M. K., Fournier, A., Carter, M., Hoover, S., Cohen, N., Mouse, T., Rusnak, J., Campos, T., Njeru, N., Arant, T., Beck, S. E., & Balo, A.
- Affiliations
- Park Nicollet Health Services (US)
- Jaeb Center for Health Research (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
- Scripps Whittier Diabetes Institute, San Diego, California
- Vanderbilt University Medical Center (US)
- Emory University (US)
- Henry Ford Health (US)
- Iowa Diabetes Research, West Des Moines
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- Northwestern University (US)
- Las Vegas Endocrinology, Henderson, Nevada
- Carteret General Hospital (US)
- Amarillo Medical Specialists, Amarillo, Texas
- Diabetes & Endocrinology Consultants PC, Morehead City, North Carolina
- Behavioral Diabetes Institute, San Diego, California
- Dexcom (United States) (US)
- HealthPartners (US)
- for the MOBILE Study Group
- Corresponding author
- Beck, Roy W.
- ORCID
- Martens, Thomas
- Beck, Roy W.
- Bailey, Ryan
- Calhoun, Peter
- Peters, Anne L.
- Bao, Shichun
- Umpierrez, Guillermo
- Davis, Georgia
- Kruger, Davida
- Bhargava, Anuj
- Young, Laura
- McGill, Janet B.
- Aleppo, Grazia
- Polonsky, William H.
- Buse, John B.
- Price, David
- Bergenstal, Richard M.
- Carlson, Anders
- Yang, Shoua
- Kirkman, Marian Sue
- Serafin-Dokhan, Sara
- Salam, Maamoun
- Ang, Lynn
- Richardson, Caroline
- Leone, Virginia
- Dailey, George
- Hoover, Stephanie
- Cohen, Nathan
- Venue
- JAMA
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2021-06-08
- Volume
- 325
- Issue
- 22
- Pages
- 2262
- ISSN
- 0002-9955 (ISSN-L)
- 0098-7484
- PMC
- PMC8173473
- OpenAlex
- W3164064295
- Cited by
- 543
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 116 · 2025: 132 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 98 · 2022: 65 · 2021: 24
- FWCI
- 54.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- JAMA (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (UL1TR001422)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P30DK092926, P30DK020572, P30DK124723, P30DK111022)
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Treatment and Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Education
- Keywords
- continuous glucose monitoring, type 2 diabetes, basal insulin, glycemic control, HbA1c, blood glucose meters, time in target glucose range, primary care, intensive insulin therapy, glycemic variability, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia, HbA1c reduction, HbA1c variability
- MeSH terms
- Glycemic Control, Aged, Blood Glucose, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Female, Glycated Hemoglobin, Humans, Hypoglycemic Agents, Insulin, Male, Middle Aged, Time Factors, Confidence Intervals, Treatment Outcome, Patient Satisfaction, Sample Size, Postprandial Period
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