The Norepinephrine Transporter in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Investigated With Positron Emission Tomography
Abstract
IMPORTANCE: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) research has long focused on the dopaminergic system's contribution to pathogenesis, although the results have been inconclusive. However, a case has been made for the involvement of the noradrenergic system, which modulates cognitive processes, such as arousal, working memory, and response inhibition, all of which are typically affected in ADHD. Furthermore, the norepinephrine transporter (NET) is an important target for frequently prescribed medication in ADHD. Therefore, the NET is suggested to play a critical role in ADHD. OBJECTIVE: To explore the differences in NET nondisplaceable binding potential (NET BPND) using positron emission tomography and the highly selective radioligand (S,S)-[18F]FMeNER-D2 [(S,S)-2-(α-(2-[18F]fluoro[2H2]methoxyphenoxy)benzyl)morpholine] between adults with ADHD and healthy volunteers serving as controls. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Twenty-two medication-free patients with ADHD (mean [SD] age, 30.7 [10.4] years; 15 [68%] men) without psychiatric comorbidities and 22 age- and sex-matched healthy controls (30.9 [10.6] years; 15 [68%] men) underwent positron emission tomography once. A linear mixed model was used to compare NET BPND between groups. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: The NET BPND in selected regions of interest relevant for ADHD, including the hippocampus, putamen, pallidum, thalamus, midbrain with pons (comprising a region of interest that includes the locus coeruleus), and cerebellum. In addition, the NET BPND was evaluated in thalamic subnuclei (13 atlas-based regions of interest). RESULTS: We found no significant differences in NET availability or regional distribution between patients with ADHD and healthy controls in all investigated brain regions (F1,41<0.01; P=.96). Furthermore, we identified no significant association between ADHD symptom severity and regional NET availability. Neither sex nor smoking status influenced NET availability. We determined a significant negative correlation between age and NET availability in the thalamus (R2=0.29; P<.01 corrected) and midbrain with pons, including the locus coeruleus (R2=0.18; P<.01 corrected), which corroborates prior findings of a decrease in NET availability with aging in the human brain. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Our results do not indicate involvement of changes in brain NET availability or distribution in the pathogenesis of ADHD. However, the noradrenergic transmitter system may be affected on a different level, such as in cortical regions, which cannot be reliably quantified with this positron emission tomography ligand. Alternatively, different key proteins of noradrenergic neurotransmission might be affected.
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Studies of norepinephrine transporter availability have not consistently reported altered NET availability in individuals with ADHD.
“Studies of NET availability have not consistently reported altered NET availability in individuals with ADHD (220, 221), but one study reported genotype-dependent increases in NET binding in the thalamus and cerebellum of adults with ADHD compared with controls; this effect was largely due to the effect of NET gene polymorphisms on NET binding potential (220).”
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Norepinephrine system at the interface of attention and reward
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Self-citationNeurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Faraone, S. V., & Radonjić, N. V. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_33-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
PET Quantification of the Norepinephrine Transporter in Human Brain with (S,S)-18F-FMeNER-D2
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From neurons to brain networks, pharmacodynamics of stimulant medication for ADHD
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Clinical utility of guanfacine extended release in the treatment of ADHD in children and adolescents
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Navigating new horizons: Prospects of NET-targeted radiopharmaceuticals in precision medicine
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Tourette Syndrome and Tic Disorders
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Sex differences in noradrenergic modulation of attention and impulsivity in rats
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Methylphenidate does not enhance visual working memory but benefits motivation in macaque monkeys
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Yacoub, M., Smith, S., Abbas, B., Iqbal, F., Jazieh, C., Shaer, N. S. H. A., Luk, C., & Syed, N. I. (2025) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells14171367 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Roshannia, S., Maleki-Karamolah, S., Akhlaghi, Z., & Kordestani-Moghadam, P. (2021) · International Clinical Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.34172/icnj.2021.14 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
[18F]FMeNER-D2: A systematic in vitro analysis of radio-metabolism
Rami‐Mark, C., Eberherr, N., Berroterán-Infante, N., Vanicek, T., Nics, L., Lanzenberger, R. R., Hacker, M., Wadsak, W., & Mitterhauser, M. (2016) · Nuclear Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2016.05.004 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationPositron emission tomography studies in adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Progress in PET Imaging of the Norepinephrine Transporter System
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Progress in PET Imaging of the Norepinephrine Transporter System
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Autism-modifying therapy based on the promotion of a brain enzyme: An introductory case-report
Béroule, D., LIMSI-CNRS, R. J. V. N., & CRIIGEN, 4. R. M. (2019) · AIMS molecular science · doi:10.3934/molsci.2019.3.52 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
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(Lack of) Effects of noradrenergic stimulation on human working memory performance
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A comprehensive overview of the biological foundations of ADHD
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Cocaine Dependence and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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1-(3-Amino-1-phenylpropyl)-3-(2-fluorophenyl)-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one
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Self-citationMUW researcher of the month Januar 2016
Vanicek, T., & Spies, M. (2016) · Wiener klinische Wochenschrift · doi:10.1007/s00508-016-0950-8
Self-citationADHS im Erwachsenenalter und komorbide Suchterkrankungen
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Basic mechanisms and treatment planning/targets for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Neurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
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Animal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Diversity and validity
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Neurodevelopmental reward dysregulation and addiction risk in ADHD
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- Authors
- Vanicek, T., Spies, M., Rami-Mark, C., Savli, M., Höflich, A., Kranz, G. S., Hahn, A., Kutzelnigg, A., Traub-Weidinger, T., Mitterhauser, M., Wadsak, W., Hacker, M., Volkow, N. D., Kasper, S., & Lanzenberger, R.
- Affiliations
- Medical University of Vienna (AT)
- Division of Nuclear Medicine, Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-Guided Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lanzenberger, Rupert
- ORCID
- Venue
- JAMA Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2014-12-01
- Volume
- 71
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1340
- ISSN
- 2168-622X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4699255
- OpenAlex
- W2061577104
- Cited by
- 61
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 1 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 8 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 2
- FWCI
- 4.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- JAMA Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, norepinephrine transporter, noradrenergic system, thalamus, locus coeruleus, midbrain, hippocampus, putamen, globus pallidus, cerebellum, age-related decline, ADHD symptom severity
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Age Factors, Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Brain, Female, Fluorine Radioisotopes, Humans, Male, Morpholines, Case-Control Studies, Positron-Emission Tomography, Norepinephrine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins, Young Adult, Functional Neuroimaging, Symptom Assessment
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