Cited by 1,645Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration MechanismsTryptophan and brain disordersInflammasome and immune disorders

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Microglia as a source and target of cytokines

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Hanisch, Uwe‐Karsten·2002·Glia

DOI 10.1002/glia.10161

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Abstract

Cytokines constitute a significant portion of the immuno‐ and neuromodulatory messengers that can be released by activated microglia. By virtue of potent effects on resident and invading cells, microglial cyto‐ and chemokines regulate innate defense mechanisms, help the initiation and influence the type of immune responses, participate in the recruitment of leukocytes to the CNS, and support attempts of tissue repair and recovery. Microglia can also receive cyto‐ and chemokine signals as part of auto‐ and paracrine communications with astrocytes, neurons, the endothelium, and leukocyte infiltrates. Strong responses and modulatory influences can be demonstrated, adding to the emerging view that microglial behavior is highly dependent on the (cytokine) environment and that reactions to a challenge may vary with the stimulation context. In principle, microglial activation aims at CNS protection. However, failed microglial engagement due to excessive or sustained activation could significantly contribute to acute and chronic neuropathologies. Dysregulation of microglial cytokine production could thereby promote harmful actions of the defense mechanisms, result in direct neurotoxicity, as well as disturb neural cell functions as they are sensitive to cytokine signaling. GLIA 40:140–155, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

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“Genome-wide RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) or gene expression profiling of human bAVM tissues/blood revealed the presence of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines (20–23), which were confined primarily to microglia (MG) and macrophages (M ϕ ) (together, MG/M ϕ ) (24, 25).”
Chlorogenic acid alleviates lipopolysaccharide-induced cognitive dysfunction through inhibiting CCR7-mediated neuroinflammation
He, S., Liu, L., Wang, X.-Q., Wang, H., Fu, X., Kong, L., Wang, S., Wang, P.-K., Cai, X., & Wang, Y. (2025) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2025.578826 · Cited by 1
Time-restricted feeding in adult mice improves mood-related behaviors in a sex-dependent manner
Bell, K. S., Darling, J. S., Prabhakar, A., Imad, S. T., Gaudet, A. D., & Fonken, L. K. (2025) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2025.115867 · Cited by 7
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Kim, S., Burrous, H., Harmon, E., Vance, L., Wu, T., Andersohn, A. P., Doan, A. N., Wolocko, D., Wise, Z., Kitamura, Y., et al. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-7383703/v1 · Cited by 1
Combined Systemic and Cutaneous Ovalbumin–Aluminum Sensitization Triggers Thermal Hyperalgesia, Spinal Gliosis, and Nociceptive Nerve Fibers Sprouting in Mice
Siquier-Dameto, G., Beltrán, J. G., Bellia, G., Boadas‐Vaello, P., & Verdú, E. (2025) · Physiologia · doi:10.3390/physiologia5030032 · Cited by 1
Acridine Benzimidazolium Derivatives Induced Protective Microglia Polarization and In Silico TDP-43 Interaction─Potential Implications for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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An approach for the analysis of axonal neuroinflammation by measuring dual biomarkers of oligodendrocytes and inflammatory cytokine in human plasma
Mitsuhashi, M., Hirata, A., Oguma, Y., Ishida, H., & Kawata, K. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3997676/v1 · Cited by 1
Scallop-derived plasmalogen attenuates amyloid beta-induced inflammation and apoptosis in SH-SY5Y cells
Han, J.-Y., Park, M., & Lee, H. (2023) · Molecular & Cellular Toxicology · doi:10.1007/s13273-023-00399-2 · Cited by 1
“During inflammation, microglia cells promote the secretion of various cytokines to repair damaged tissues and restore homeostasis (Woodroofe 1995; Hanisch 2002).”
Innate and adaptive glial cell responses in Alzheimer’s disease
Singh, A., & Singh, T. R. (2023) · Exploration of Neuroprotective Therapy · doi:10.37349/ent.2023.00039 · Cited by 1
Molecular mechanisms of the development of the phenomena of peripheral and central sensitization in rheumatoid arthritis
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Toxic leukoencephalopathy caused by chemotherapeutic drugs other than methotrexate
Park, S.-H., Lim, K.-Y., Kim, S.-I., Kim, H., Kang, J., Park, J. W., Won, J., & Shin, D.-Y. (2021) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-36667/v1 · Cited by 1
Chronic Intermittent Ethanol Activates CHOP in Striatal Microglia and Exacerbates Ethanol WithdrawalPreprint
Williams, R. G., Dufour, B. D., Coffey, K. R., Lesiak, A. J., Nickelson, W. B., Dawkins, A. J., Garden, G. A., & Neumaier, J. F. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.09.02.280156
Inflammatory cytokine levels in multiple system atrophy
Wang, H., Wang, W., Yi, Z., Zhao, P., Zhang, H., & Pan, P. (2020) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000021509 · Cited by 1
Molecular cloning of the rabbit interleukin 6 promoter: Functional characterization of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus response elements in RK-13 cells.
Liu, X., Hu, B., Wang, F., Song, Y.-H., Fan, Z., Wei, H., Qiu, R., & Xu, W. (2016) · Developmental and Comparative Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.dci.2016.07.017 · Cited by 1
Development of Stable Long‐term Electrode Tissue Interfaces for Recording and Stimulation
Schouenborg, J. (2016) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118816028.ch2
Hypoxic Preconditioning Improved Neuroprotective Effect of Bone Marrow-Mesenchymal Stem Cells Transplantation in Acute Glaucoma Models
Ernawati, T., Suhendro, G., Sudiana, I., Putra, S., Jm, H., Sunarjo, Turchan, A., & Rantam, F. (2016) · doi:10.4236/jbise.2016.94018 · Cited by 1
Inflammatory Mediators and the Blood-Brain Barrier
Dorovini‐Zis, K., & Easton, A. (2015) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b18606-10 · Cited by 1
The Blood-Brain Barrier and the Immune Privilege of the Central Nervous System
Clarkson, B. D. S., Harris, M. G., Rayasam, A., & Fábry, Z. (2015) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b18606-9 · Cited by 1
Roles in Immune Responses
Hanamsagar, R., Cardona, S. M., Kielian, T., & Cardona, A. E. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1429-6_5
Molecular genetics of optic glioma: lessons learned from neurofibromatosis-1 genetically engineered mice
Hussain, I., & Gutmann, D. (2011) · Expert Review of Ophthalmology · doi:10.1586/eop.11.31 · Cited by 1
Non-electrophilic TRPA1 modulator MNP-021 protects neuronal and glial function from diabetes-associated glucotoxicity and neuroinflammation
Carli, A. D., Filipponi, C., Polini, B., Sancho‐Bornez, V., Basso, E., Filippini, F., Dardano, A., Sardelli, F., Daniele, S., Contestabile, M., et al. (2026) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.64898/2026.01.29.702298
“To profile microglial activation state, qPCR assessed MHC II and MCP1 (pro-inflammatory/M1-like markers) [13, 42] and ARG1 (M2-like marker) [14].”
Targeting BCL11B-mediated JAK2/STAT3 activation: A novel therapeutic strategy for Parkinson’s disease
Chen, W.-W., Zhang, Y.-J., Zhou, X.-R., Yan, J.-N., Song, Y.-M., Shen, J.-B., & Gu, X.-S. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.117833
Myrtenol modulates TWEAK/TLR4–NF-κB, miR-21, PTEN, and ERK-1 expressions and improves behavioral outcomes in a rat glioblastoma model
Delshad, S., Jafarinejad-Farsangi, S., Ghasem-Shirazi, M., Kheirandish, R., & Bashiri, H. (2026) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-026-05705-y
“…imbalance in pro-and anti-inflammatory cytokines, particularly an increased interleukin-1β/interleukin-10 (IL-1β/ IL-10) ratio, is associated with enhanced neuroinflammation, glial activation, and tumor progression (Hambardzumyan et al. 2016; Hanisch 2002; Mantovani et al. 2017; Zhu et al. 2012).”
Pentoxifylline targets TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling to ameliorate neuroinflammation and metabolic dysfunction in a rat model of chronic hypoperfusion-induced vascular cognitive impairment
Wang, X.-H., Xie, B., Yuan, X., Rong, J., Lv, X., Ma, Q., Shen, L., & Han, B. (2026) · Metabolic brain disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-026-01934-5
“Microglia are the principal cellular source of these cytokines under hypoxic stress (Hanisch 2002).”
Microglial CHOP expression contributes to the consequences of ethanol withdrawal
Williams, R. G., Dufour, B. D., Coffey, K. R., Lesiak, A. J., Nickelson, W. B., Dawkins, A. J., Garden, G. A., & Neumaier, J. F. (2026) · Addiction Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.addicn.2026.100269
Dual CCR2/CCR5 Antagonism with Cenicriviroc Alleviates Nerve Injury-Induced Hypersensitivity and Prevents Morphine Tolerancevia Modulation of Neuroimmune Signaling
Piotrowska, A., Starnowska-Sokół, J., Ciapała, K., Barut, J., Pawlik, K., Ciechanowska, A., Kwiatkowski, K., Kreiner, G., & Mika, J. (2026) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s10571-026-01761-3
GPCR-mediated regulation of glial TNF productionPreprint
Abbasi, Z., Sadighparvar, S., Franquin, M., & Stellwagen, D. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.06.12.731854
“Microglia are another crucial type of glial cell in the brain, can produce substantial amounts of TNF and play a significant role in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases (Hanisch, 2002; Smith et al., 2012).”
Taming the “death receptor”: translating the first-in-class p75NTR modulator LM11A-31 from basic biology, across broad preclinical models, to clinical proof-of-concept
Langness, V. F., Simmons, D. A., Kaur, S., Massa, S. M., & Longo, F. M. (2026) · Journal of Translational Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12967-026-08276-x
“Neuroin-flammation also involves release of cytokines, which are elevated in the brains and plasma of patients and mouse models of neurodegenerative diseases [159, 165].”
TLR7-induced murine inflammation results in a global neuroinflammatory response driving neural circuit-specific transcriptomic changes
Gardner-Stephen, K., Carvajal-Quisilema, R. J., Andrianova, L., McGonigal, R., Sharma, D., Barrie, J. A., Saathoff, M., Cole, J., Jamieson, N. B., Craig, M. T., et al. (2026) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-026-51581-0 · Cited by 1
Neuroinflammation in epilepsy: Mitochondrial connections and therapeutic targets
Olkhova, E. A., Dimitriou, A., Johnson, B. M., Hanaford, A., & Johnson, S. C. (2026) · Brain Mechanisms · doi:10.1016/j.bramec.2026.202535
miR-19a-3p and miR-19b-3p repress Nurr1 and Nur77 to promote microglial inflammation after spinal cord injury
Sahebdel, F., Zia, A., Quintá, H. R., Stucky, A., Morse, L. R., Olson, J. K., & Battaglino, R. A. (2026) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2026.1783899
“Microglia, the CNS’s resident immune cells, initiate extensive inflammatory cascades in response to damage signals in combination with autocrine and paracrine signaling from astrocytes and neurons (Hanisch, 2002).”
Affiliative behavioural phenotype and microglial activation predict social decision-making following immune activation
Hammond, E. R., Monari, P. K., Luebke, E. M., Johnson, A. K., Auger, A. P., & Marler, C. A. (2025) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2025.11.23.690017
The role of circulating free nucleic acids on Alzheimer's Disease
Menegaz, L. L., Cohen, D., Sommer, L. T., Santos, H. L. S., Pinto, F. C., Marrone, L. C. P., Schaun, M. I., & Dias, C. T. (2025) · Research, Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v14i11.49915
“Hanisch (2002) demonstrates in his study, based on in vivo and in vitro experiments, that microglia are capable of synthesizing a significant amount of these substances in response to immune stress, further supporting the possibility that microglia are a primary and independent source of signaling.”
IL-6 Expression and the Confidence Interval-Based Estimation of Relevance (CIBER) Help Identify Persistent Inflammation and Cognitive Parameters of Executive Dysfunction in the Withdrawal Phase of Male Polydrug Abusers
González, J. I. G., Gálvez‐Contreras, A. Y., Jimenez-Navarro, I., Perez-Alcaraz, I., González-Pérez, Ó., & González-Castañeda, R. E. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13121462
“In clinical studies females with a history of amphetamine addiction, increased ACTH levels, potentially driven by estrogenic modulation, coincide with elevated IL-6 levels and corresponding impairments in cognitive flexibility [26,27].”
Studies on Anti-inflammatory Effects of Gyejigamcho-tang Extracts
Kim, T. Y., & Jo, N. (2025) · Journal of Physiology & Pathology in Korean Medicine · doi:10.15188/kjopp.2025.04.39.2.47
Glial cells in neurodegenerative diseases: a review
Pranto, A. H., Khandker, S. S., Uddin, M. E., Aktar, S., Mumu, S. I., Khan, R. I., Chowdhury, N. K., Prekbunjun, J., Zisan, A., & Begum, R. (2025) · Neurophysiology · doi:10.1007/s11062-026-10018-0
Rat primary cortical cell tri-culture to study effects of amyloid-beta on microglia functionPreprint
Kim, H., Le, B., Goshi, N., Zhu, K., Grodzki, A. C., Lein, P. J., Zhao, M., & Şeker, E. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.03.15.584736
“It is well-established that microglia secrete various cytokines upon exposure to external stimuli, including A β proteins, in both in vitro and in vivo studies reported by others (Hanisch, 2002; Shaftel et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2015; Decourt et al., 2017; Perez-Nievas et al., 2021).”
Background
Fundamental disincorporation and early non-inflammatory microglia alterations: Possible bridging phenomena between neurobiology and psychopathology in schizophrenia
Magnani, L., Fusar‐Poli, L., Parise, A., Nguyen, K. D., Saverino, D., & Costanza, A. (2023) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2023.111158
Retinal affectation in Huntington’s disease mouse models concurs with a local innate immune responsePreprint
Arroba, A. I., Gallardo-Orihuela, A., Cano-Cano, F., Martín-Loro, F., González-Montelongo, M. D. C., Hervás-Corpión, I., de la Villa, P., Ramón-Marco, L., Gómez-Jaramillo, L., & Valor, L. M. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.01.17.523578
Cardiorespiratory alterations in a newborn ovine model of systemic viral inflammation
Nault, S., Tremblay, S., Imane, R., Omar, S. A., Nadeau, C., Samson, N., Creuze, V., Carrault, G., Pladys, P., & Praud, J. (2022) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-022-01958-4
Morpho‐functional variation and response pattern of microglia through rodent ontogeny showing infant microglia as stable and adaptive than matured
Ghosh, A., Ghosh, P., Deb, I., & Bandyopadhyay, S. K. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2315 · Cited by 2
“To operate with such sensitivity, they express large number of receptors and act as a source or sink of a plethora of soluble factors, cytokines, and chemokines (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Acyloxyacyl Hydrolase Regulates Microglia-Mediated Pelvic Pain Through Toll-Like Receptor-4Preprint
Rahman-Enyart, A., Yaggie, R., Yang, W., Bollinger, J., Winter, D., Schaeffer, A., & Klumpp, D. (2021) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2021.02.26.433087
“Activated microglia are a source of cytokine release which can drive immune responses and other neuromodulatory functions [23].”
Background
Experimental Pulmonary Tuberculosis Without Brain Infection in Male BALB/c Mice Induces Neuroinflammation and Behavioural AbnormalitiesPreprint
Lara-Espinosa, J. V., Marquina‐Castillo, B., Santana-Martínez, R. A., Zetter, M. A., Maldonado, P. D., Becerril‐Villanueva, E., Pérez‐Sánchez, G., Pavón, L., Mata‐Espinosa, D., Barrios‐Payán, J., et al. (2020) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-24798/v1 · Cited by 11
“The high production of peripheral inflammatory cytokines or activated immune cells, as well as the vagus afferent nerve stimulation, can modify the tone of neuronal networks and induce neuroinflammation by inducing resident production of cytokines [40].”
Background
Context dependent cytokine secretion by stem cell derived microglia in vitro
Vandekolk, T. H. (2020) · doi:10.26180/5e6b44c2c336c
“This is extremely interesting, as it contradicts the work performed in Chapter Four, and supports the use of LPS for microglial stimulation (327, 432, 433, 623).”
Result
Characterization and Therapeutic Manipulation of Glioblastoma-Associated Microglia, Macrophages, and Cytokines to Improve Prognosis
Poon, C. C. (2020) · doi:10.11575/prism/37541
RETRACTED: Progranulin suppresses the age-dependent enhancement of neuronal activity in the hypothalamus
Bai, D., Ma, Y., Lv, L., Wang, Y., Yang, W., & Ma, Y. (2020) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2020.134755
Retracted
Advances in the understanding of cellular pathogenesis associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Savory, K., & Syed, Y. A. (2019) · Journal for ReAttach Therapy and Developmental Diversities · doi:10.26407/2019jrtdd.1.21
“Microglia are the immune cells of the brain and are capable of producing and reacting to a range of immune responses by secreting cytokines (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Unraveling ChR2-driven stochastic Ca2+ dynamics in astrocytes – A call for new interventional paradigms
Moshkforoush, A., Balachandar, L., Moncion, C., Santana, J., & Diaz, J. R. (2019) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/549469
Effect of Ethanol Extracts from Defatted Perilla frutescens on LPS-induced Inflammation in Mouse BV2 Microglial Cells
Lee, S.-G., & Kang, H. (2018) · Biomedical Science Letters · doi:10.15616/bsl.2018.24.4.398
“인간의 iNOS는 염증성질환이 있 는 환자의 macrophage에서 다량의 NO를 생성하여 세균침 입을 억제하거나 혹은 T-세포증식을 억제하여 국소 염증 반응을 하향시키는 방어에 중요한 역할을 하고 있는 것 으로 보고되고 있다(Wang et al., 2002; Hanisch, 2002).”
Nano immunoconjugates crossing blood-brain barrier activate local brain tumor immune system for glioma treatmentPreprint
Galstyan, A., Chiechi, A., Korman, A., Sun, T., Israel, L., Braubach, O., Patil, R., Shatalova, E., Ljubimov, V., Markman, J., et al. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/466508
Neuro-inflammation and its effects on cognition: A review of literature
Purnichi, T., Roşca, A., Giurgiuca, A., Pavel, A. N., & Matei, V. P. (2018) · Romanian Journal of Psychiatry & Psychotherapy · doi:10.37897/rjpp.2018.3.2
Metanalysis of genome-wide association studies for panic disorder suggest pathways and mechanisms of pathogenesisPreprint
Silva, R. X. D. C., Rocha, S. P., Souza, D. P. D. S., Lima, M. G., & Maximino, C. (2018) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/326017 · Cited by 1
“This last observation ties well with the observation of enrichment in immune and inflammatory pathways, given the role of microglia in these functions in the brain (Hanisch, 2002).”
Result
Investigating the Role of In Utero Inflammation on Neurodevelopment in the Fetus and Offspring and the Neuroprotective Properties Afforded by Broccoli Sprouts
Nguyen, A. (2016) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3057d35z · Cited by 1
Characterisation of novel therapies to mitigate inflammation in retinal degenerations
Saxena, K. (2015) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/5d78d614a6941
“α, interleukin (IL)-1β [60, 75, 76], and release of nitric oxide [71, 77].”
Background
Activation of microglia in the nucleus of the solitary tract by inferior alveolar nerve injury
Kakihara, R., Suwabe, T., Nishikawa, Y., & Morita, S. (2015) · doi:10.18905/jodu.49.1_21
Microglial involvement in brain physiopathology: in vitro studies using rat primary cultures
Mengoni, I. (2014) · AMS Dottorato Institutional Doctoral Theses Repository (University of Bologna) · doi:10.6092/unibo/amsdottorato/6466
“Now it is well known that these cells are capable of integrating ad responding appropriately to different inputs (Hanisch, 2002; Schwartz et al., 2006; Hanisch and Kettenmann, 2007) and microglial activation is a process more diverse and dynamic than has been considered in the past.”
Implication des neurones exprimant NUCB2/nesfatine-1 dans la régulation de l'homéostasie énergétique
Bonnet, M. S. (2013) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/82840557z70b7z4214zbe5azca1e4f81d53a
“Elles sont également produites au niveau du système nerveux central, majoritairement par les 54 cellules microgliales et les astrocytes (Dong et Benveniste, 2001; Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Plasma Membrane Channels Formed by Connexins or Pannexins in Microglia: Possible Role in the Inflamed Brain
Juan, A. D. (2013) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/54306
“In a healthy brain, microglia exhibit a resting surveillance state associated with active explo‐ ration of their environment for exogenous or endogenous signals representing a threat to the homeostasis [1-5].”
Background
Gap Junctions in Antigen-Presenting Cells
Sáez, P. J., Shoji, K. F., & Sáez, J. C. (2013) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b14166-6
Targeting Microglia to Prevent Post-Traumatic Epilepsy
Barth, D. S. (2012) · doi:10.21236/ada590837
Inflammation in Parkinson’s Disease: Causes and Consequences
Louise, M., Toulouse, A., & Yvonne, M. (2012) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/18184
“In the brain, it has been reported that cytokines function in growth promotion, inhibition and proliferation of astrocytes and oligodendrocytes (Hanisch, 2002), modulation of neurotransmitter release (Zalcman et al., 1994) long-term potentiation (Nolan et al., 2005) behavioural impairments such as…”

Authors: Hanisch, U.
Affiliations: Max Delbrück Center (DE)
Corresponding author: Hanisch, Uwe‐Karsten
Venue: Glia
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2002-10-04
Volume: 40
Issue: 2
Pages: 140-155
ISSN: 0894-1491 (ISSN-L)
1098-1136
DOI: 10.1002/glia.10161
OpenAlex: W2090804892
Cited by: 1,645
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 29 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 81 · 2014: 86 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 93
FWCI: 4.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Glia (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
Keywords: microglia, cytokines, chemokines, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, astrocyte-microglia interaction, tissue repair, neurotoxicity, neuropathology, innate immunity
MeSH terms: Animals, Cell Communication, Endocrine System, Endothelium, Vascular, Humans, Neuroglia, Neurons, Cytokines, Microglia

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Microglia as a source and target of cytokines

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