Cited by 1,645Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration MechanismsTryptophan and brain disordersInflammasome and immune disorders

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Microglia as a source and target of cytokines

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Hanisch, Uwe‐Karsten·2002·Glia

DOI 10.1002/glia.10161

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Abstract

Cytokines constitute a significant portion of the immuno‐ and neuromodulatory messengers that can be released by activated microglia. By virtue of potent effects on resident and invading cells, microglial cyto‐ and chemokines regulate innate defense mechanisms, help the initiation and influence the type of immune responses, participate in the recruitment of leukocytes to the CNS, and support attempts of tissue repair and recovery. Microglia can also receive cyto‐ and chemokine signals as part of auto‐ and paracrine communications with astrocytes, neurons, the endothelium, and leukocyte infiltrates. Strong responses and modulatory influences can be demonstrated, adding to the emerging view that microglial behavior is highly dependent on the (cytokine) environment and that reactions to a challenge may vary with the stimulation context. In principle, microglial activation aims at CNS protection. However, failed microglial engagement due to excessive or sustained activation could significantly contribute to acute and chronic neuropathologies. Dysregulation of microglial cytokine production could thereby promote harmful actions of the defense mechanisms, result in direct neurotoxicity, as well as disturb neural cell functions as they are sensitive to cytokine signaling. GLIA 40:140–155, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

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Zhao, G.-W., Wang, Y., Li, Y.-C., Jiang, Z.-L., Sun, L., Xi, X., He, P., Wang, G.-H., Xu, S.-H., Ma, D.-M., et al. (2014) · Journal of Ethnopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.041 · Cited by 22
Single-cell transcriptomic atlas of Alzheimer's disease middle temporal gyrus reveals region, cell type, and sex specificity of gene expression with novel genetic risk for MERTK in female
Zhang, L., Liu, T., He, C. H., Russo, A., Coffey, S., Yin, D., Hsu, I.-U., Zhang, C., Ye, Y., Su, C., et al. (2026) · Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease · doi:10.1177/13872877261480719 · Cited by 22
“23,26 Although the importance of myeloid populations in the central nervous system in both health and disease has been increasingly recognized, 27 – 31 the contribution of brain myeloid cells, microglia in particular, 29,32 to AD-associated neuronal injury remains incomplete.”
Extracellular vesicles in age-related diseases: disease pathogenesis, intervention, and biomarker
Putri, P. H. L., Alamudi, S. H., Dong, X., & Fu, Y. L. (2025) · Stem Cell Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13287-025-04374-7 · Cited by 25
“Under infection and injury conditions, brain microglia serve as the first line of defense and protection [99, 100].”
Medicinal herbal remedies in neurodegenerative diseases: an update on antioxidant potential
Sarkar, B., Rana, N., Singh, C., & Singh, A. (2024) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-024-03027-5 · Cited by 26
“When cells are damaged by things like infection or toxins, the immune system may trigger apoptosis as a protective measure (Hanisch 2002).”
Interactions between CNS and immune cells in tuberculous meningitis
Ma, Q., Chen, J., Kong, X., Zeng, Y., Chen, Z., Liu, H., Liu, L., Lu, S., & Wang, X. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1326859 · Cited by 17
Single-cell transcriptomic atlas of Alzheimer's disease middle temporal gyrus reveals region, cell type and sex specificity of gene expression with novel genetic risk for MERTK in female
Zhang, L., He, C.-H., Coffey, S., Yin, D., Hsu, I., Su, C., Ye, Y.-X., Zhang, C., Spurrier, J., Nicholson, L., et al. (2023) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.02.18.23286037 · Cited by 21
Malonic acid suppresses lipopolysaccharide-induced BV2 microglia cell activation by inhibiting the p38 MAPK/NF-κB pathway
Lee, H., Jang, J.-H., & Kim, S. (2021) · Animal Cells and Systems · doi:10.1080/19768354.2021.1901781 · Cited by 23
Effect of Glycine on BV-2 Microglial Cells Treated with Interferon-γ and Lipopolysaccharide
Egger, F., Jakab, M., Fuchs, J., Oberascher, K., Brachtl, G., Ritter, M., Kerschbaum, H., & Gaisberger, M. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21030804 · Cited by 21
Anorexia increases microglial density and cytokine expression in the hippocampus of young female rats
Varman, D. R., Macedo-Mendoza, M., Labrada-Moncada, F. E., Reyes-Ortega, P., Morales, T., Martínez‐Torres, A., & Reyes‐Haro, D. (2019) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.042 · Cited by 26
Extracellular adenosine and slow-wave sleep are increased after ablation of nucleus accumbens core astrocytes and neurons in mice
Zhou, X., Oishi, Y., Chérasse, Y., Korkutata, M., Fujii, S., Lee, C.-Y., & Lazarus, M. (2019) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.020 · Cited by 21
“Microglia are considered to be a major source of cytokines, but there is almost no evidence indicating that microglia can release adenosine (Hanisch, 2002; Smith et al., 2012).”
Glial cells as mediators of protective actions of prolactin (PRL) in the CNS
Anagnostou, I., Reyes-Mendoza, J., & Morales, T. (2018) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2018.01.024 · Cited by 24
Effect of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors donepezil and rivastigmine on the activity and expression of cyclooxygenases in a model of the inflammatory action of fluoride on macrophages obtained from THP-1 monocytes.
Goschorska, M., Baranowska-Bosiacka, I., Gutowska, I., Tarnowski, M., Piotrowska, K., Metryka, E., Safranow, K., & Chlubek, D. (2018) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.tox.2018.05.007 · Cited by 21
Regional microglia are transcriptionally distinct but similarly exacerbate neurodegeneration in a culture model of Parkinson’s disease
Kostuk, E. W., Cai, J., & Iacovitti, L. (2018) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-018-1181-x · Cited by 26
Enterovirus 71 infection caused neuronal cell death and cytokine expression in cultured rat neural cells
Chang, C.-Y., Li, J.-R., Ou, Y., Chen, W.-Y., Liao, S.-L., Raung, S., Hsiao, A., & Chen, C.-J. (2015) · IUBMB Life - A Journal of the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology · doi:10.1002/iub.1434 · Cited by 21
Differential activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and glial cells in the trigeminal sensory nuclear complex following lingual nerve injury.
Terayama, R., Fujisawa, N., Yamaguchi, D., Omura, S., Ichikawa, H., & Sugimoto, T. (2011) · Neurosciences research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2010.11.004 · Cited by 21
Understanding the influence of TLR-mediated immune system on necroptosis-induced neurodegeneration in Parkinson’s disease
Jadhav, V. S., & Khatri, D. K. (2025) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2025.102872 · Cited by 22
Sigesbeckia orientalis L. Derived Active Fraction Ameliorates Perioperative Neurocognitive Disorders Through Alleviating Hippocampal Neuroinflammation
Chu, J. M. T., Abulimiti, A., Wong, B. S., Zhao, G. D., Xiong, S. H., Zhao, M., Wang, Y., Chen, Y., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.846631 · Cited by 19
“It has been shown that microglia are the source of inflammatory cytokines and its activation correlates to the secretion of interleukin cytokines, tumor necrosis factor and monocyte chemoattractant protein (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Microglial activation in Alzheimer's disease: The role of flavonoids and microRNAs
Medrano-Jiménez, E., Meza‐Sosa, K. F., Aragon, J. A. U., Secundino, I., Pedraza-Alva, G., & Pérez-Martínez, L. (2022) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1002/jlb.3mr1021-531r · Cited by 28
Ceftriaxone therapy attenuates brain trauma in rats by affecting glutamate transporters and neuroinflammation and not by its antibacterial effects
Lim, S.-W., Su, H., Nyam, T.-T. E., Chio, C., Kuo, J., & Wang, C.-C. (2021) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-021-00659-8 · Cited by 21
Casticin protected against neuronal injury and inhibited the TLR4/NF‐κB pathway after middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats
Huang, D., Zhou, J., Li, W., Zhang, L., Wang, X., & Liu, Q. (2021) · Pharmacology Research & Perspectives · doi:10.1002/prp2.752 · Cited by 22
Mechanisms and significance of microglia–axon interactions in physiological and pathophysiological conditions
Fujita, Y., & Yamashita, T. (2021) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-021-03758-1 · Cited by 30
Mesenchymal stem cells reduce the oxaliplatin-induced sensory neuropathy through the reestablishment of redox homeostasis in the spinal cord.
Santos, G. G. L. D., Oliveira, A. L. L., Santos, D., Santo, R. F. D. E., Silva, D. N., Juiz, P. J. L., Soares, M., & Villarreal, C. (2020) · Life Science · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118755 · Cited by 20
“According to Hanisch [65], IL-10 exerts neuroprotective action, interacting with glial cells and causing a reduction in inflammatory mediators and/or attenuating their effects.”
Background
Parkinson’s Disease With Depression: The Correlations Between Neuroinflammatory Factors and Neurotransmitters in Cerebrospinal Fluid
Lian, T., Guo, P. F., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Li, L., Ding, D.-Y., Li, D.-N., Zhang, W., Guan, H., Wang, X., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.574776 · Cited by 20
“…are overactivated and initiate neuroinflammatory process, robustly producing series of neuroinflammatory factors, including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, etc. (Hanisch, 2002; Wilms et al., 2007), as well as a variety of harmful free radicals, such as H2O2 and NO (Block et al., 2007; Gao et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluential
Cytokine inflammatory threat, but not LPS one, shortens GABAergic synaptic currents in the mouse spinal cord organotypic cultures
Giacco, V., Panattoni, G., Medelin, M., Bonechi, E., Aldinucci, A., Ballerini, C., & Ballerini, L. (2019) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-019-1519-z · Cited by 22
Intraoperative electroacupuncture relieves remifentanil-induced postoperative hyperalgesia via inhibiting spinal glial activation in rats
Shi, C.-X., Liu, Y., Zhang, W., Lei, Y., Lu, C., Sun, R., Sun, Y., Jiang, M., Gu, X., & Ma, Z. (2017) · Molecular Pain · doi:10.1177/1744806917725636 · Cited by 16
Inhibition of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex attenuates pain-related negative emotion in rats
Cao, H., Zang, K., Han, M., Zhao, Z., Wu, G.-C., & Zhang, Y. (2014) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2014.06.005 · Cited by 21
Kenyan purple tea anthocyanins and coenzyme-Q10 ameliorate post treatment reactive encephalopathy associated with cerebral human African trypanosomiasis in murine model.
Rashid, K., Wachira, F., Nyariki, J., & Isaac, A. O. (2014) · Parasitology international · doi:10.1016/j.parint.2014.01.001 · Cited by 20
Effect of the Semen Extract of Thuja orientalis on Inflammatory Responses in Transient Focal Cerebral Ischemia Rat Model and LPS-Stimulated BV-2 Microglia
Jung, H. W., Kang, S. Y., Park, K. H., Oh, T. W., Jung, J. K., Kim, S. H., Choi, D.-J., & Park, Y. (2013) · The American Journal of Chinese Medicine · doi:10.1142/s0192415x13500080 · Cited by 19
Methylalpinumisoflavone Inhibits Lipopolysaccharide‐Induced Inflammation in Microglial Cells by the NF‐kappaB and MAPK Signaling Pathway
Lim, J., Hwang, B. Y., Hwang, K., & Park, S. (2012) · Phytotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/ptr.4810 · Cited by 23
A substituted 3,4-dihydropyrimidinone derivative (compound D22) prevents inflammation mediated neurotoxicity; role in microglial activation in BV-2 cells.
Kwon, O., Moon, E., Chari, M. A., Kim, T. W., Kim, A., Lee, P., Ahn, K., & Kim, S. (2012) · Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.06.082 · Cited by 20
Early Blockade of TLRs MyD88-Dependent Pathway May Reduce Secondary Spinal Cord Injury in the Rats
Yao, A., Jia, L.-Y., Zhang, Y.-K., Ma, Q., Peng, C., Liu, L., Ju, G., & Kuang, F. (2012) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2012/591298 · Cited by 20
Role of gut microbiota in neuroinflammation: a focus on perioperative neurocognitive disorders
Zhou, Q., Chen, T., Wang, X., Xu, Z., Song, Y., Liu, S., Ge, Y., & Gao, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology · doi:10.3389/fcimb.2025.1582909 · Cited by 24
“…degrees of microglial activation, triggering an in ﬂ ammatory cascade that promoted the synthesis and secretion of in ﬂ ammatory mediators such as cytokines, eicosanoids, complement factors, excitatory amino acids, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide (Hanisch, 2002; Minagar et al., 2002).”
The Complementary Role of Morphology in Understanding Microglial Functional Heterogeneity
Godeanu, S., & Cătălin, B. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26083811 · Cited by 22
“These go beyond the binary M1/M2 distinctions [118] and propose more of a spectrum with the phagocytic response at determine example, leading, on the other hand, to possible activation of T lymphocytes [117].”
Crosstalk between neuroinflammation and ferroptosis: Implications for Parkinson’s disease progression
Guo, X., Wei, R., Yin, X., & Yang, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2025.1528538 · Cited by 13
“Consistent with this ﬁ nding, overexpression of Nrf2 has been shown to reduce the formation of α -syn aggregates in the CNS (He et al., 2013).”
Influential
The spleen mediates chronic sleep restriction-mediated enhancement of LPS-induced neuroinflammation, cognitive deficits, and anxiety-like behavior
Xu, D., Zhang, Y., Xie, B., Yao, H., Yuan, Y., Yuan, S., & Zhang, J. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.103659 · Cited by 22
Depression in Ovariectomized Female Rats with HF Post-MI.
Najjar, F., Ahmad, M., Lagace, D., & Leenen, F. (2019) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.07.017 · Cited by 19
Perinatal exposure to nonylphenol induces microglia-mediated nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 production in offspring hippocampus
Qiu, Z., Wang, Y., & Chen, J. (2018) · Toxicology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.11.013 · Cited by 18
Mitochondrial-Directed Antioxidant Reduces Microglial-Induced Inflammation in Murine In Vitro Model of TC-83 Infection
Keck, F., Khan, D., Roberts, B., Agrawal, N., Bhalla, N., & Narayanan, A. (2018) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v10110606 · Cited by 20
Prolonged lipopolysaccharide exposure induces transient immunosuppression in BV2 microglia
Twayana, K. S., Chaudhari, N. D., & Ravanan, P. (2018) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.27064 · Cited by 19
“…synthesize and release massive amounts of specific cyto/chemokines among the many that includes IL1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 18, IFNγ, TNF‐α, TGFβ, M‐MCF, BDNF, GDNF, nitric oxide (NO), and MCP1 that in turn recruit other immune cells to aid in resolving the cellular disturbance (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Deep hypothermia therapy attenuates LPS-induced microglia neuroinflammation via the STAT3 pathway
Tong, G., Krauß, A., Mochner, J., Wollersheim, S., Soltani, P., Berger, F. F., & Schmitt, K. R. L. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.06.055 · Cited by 21
“IL-6 is one of the key players in the immune response that is secreted during the early phase and regulates the acute phase reaction (Hanisch, 2002).”
Plasma Cytokine Levels in Relation to Neuropsychiatric Symptoms and Cognitive Dysfunction in Huntington’s disease
Bouwens, J., van Duijn, E., Cobbaert, C., Roos, R., van der Mast, R., & Giltay, E. (2016) · Journal of Huntington's Disease · doi:10.3233/jhd-160213 · Cited by 19
“Once in the brain, cytokines can activate other microglia which in turn secrete their own pro-inﬂammatory cytokines [44].”
Long‐term impact of neonatal inflammation on demyelination and remyelination in the central nervous system
Bénardais, K., Gudi, V., Gai, L., Nessler, J. N., Singh, V., Prajeeth, C. K., Skripuletz, T., & Stangel, M. (2014) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.22706 · Cited by 19
Erythropoietin reduces brain injury after intracerebral hemorrhagic stroke in rats
Yu, Z., Tang, L., Chen, L., Li, J., Wu, W., & Chang-lin, H. (2013) · Molecular Medicine Reports · doi:10.3892/mmr.2013.1666 · Cited by 19
Resatorvid Relieves Breast Cancer Complicated with Depression by Inactivating Hippocampal Microglia Through TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 Signaling Pathway
Luo, W., Han, Y.-S., Meng, P., Yang, Q., Zhao, H.-Q., Ling, J., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Cancer Management and Research · doi:10.2147/cmar.s279800 · Cited by 18
“Hippocampal microglia (MG) are the main immune cells of the central nervous system, which can provide nutritional support for neurons.(10) MG could defend itself, and play a crucial role in immune surveillance to keep a steady-state environment of the central nervous system.”
Background
Luteoloside Exerts Analgesic Effect in a Complete Freund’s Adjuvant-Induced Inflammatory Model via Inhibiting Interleukin-1β Expression and Macrophage/Microglia Activation
Shi, C.-Y., He, X.-B., Zhao, C., & Wang, H.-J. (2020) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2020.01158 · Cited by 18
“They secrete a variety of pro-inflammatory cytokines, as well as inducing the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) which leads to the release of prostanoids (Samad et al., 2001; Hanisch, 2002; Lees et al., 2015; Vicario et al., 2016; Haight et al., 2019).”
Background
Analgesic and Neuroprotective Effects of Electroacupuncture in a Dental Pulp Injury Model—A Basic Research
Romero, S. S. B., Lee, Y.-C., Fuh, L.-J., Chung, H.-Y., Hung, S.-Y., & Chen, Y.-H. (2020) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms21072628 · Cited by 18
Assessment of Translocator Protein Density, as Marker of Neuroinflammation, in Major Depressive Disorder: A Pilot, Multicenter, Comparative, Controlled, Brain PET Study (INFLADEP Study)
Yrondi, A., Aouizerate, B., El-Hage, W., Moliere, F., Thalamas, C., Delcourt, N., Sporer, M., Taib, S., Schmitt, L., Arlicot, N., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00326 · Cited by 19
Interleukin-1 signaling in the basolateral amygdala is necessary for heroin-conditioned immunosuppression
Hutson, L. W., Lebonville, C. L., Jones, M., Fuchs, R. A., & Lysle, D. T. (2017) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2017.01.017 · Cited by 17
“One primary source of IL-1b in the brain is glial cells (Davies et al., 1999; Hanisch, 2002; Rothwell et al., 1996; Toda et al., 2002).”
m-Trifluoromethyl-diphenyldiselenide as a pharmacological tool to treat preference symptoms related to AMPH-induced dependence in rats.
Segat, H., Martini, F., Barcelos, R. C. S., Brüning, C. A., Nogueira, C. W., & Burger, M. E. (2016) · Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2015.11.002 · Cited by 18
Dopamine inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production through the formation of dopamine quinone in murine microglia BV-2 cells.
Yoshioka, Y., Sugino, Y., Tozawa, A., Yamamuro, A., Kasai, A., Ishimaru, Y., & Maeda, S. (2016) · Journal of Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jphs.2015.11.002 · Cited by 18
Inflammatory reaction regulated by microglia plays a role in atrazine-induced dopaminergic neuron degeneration in the substantia nigra
Zhang, B., Ma, K., & Li, B. (2015) · The Journal of Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.2131/jts.40.437 · Cited by 19
Unique Brain Region-Dependent Cytokine Signatures After Prolonged Hypothermic Cardiac Arrest in Rats
Drabek, T., Wilson, C. D., Janata, A., Stezoski, J., Janesko-Feldman, K., Garman, R., Tisherman, S., & Kochanek, P. (2015) · Therapeutic Hypothermia and Temperature Management · doi:10.1089/ther.2014.0013 · Cited by 18
“This is surprising since microglia were viewed as a major source of cytokine production triggered by ischemia, namely IL-1 b and TNF-a (Perry et al. , 1995; Uno et al. , 1997; Hanisch, 2002; Kim and de Vellis, 2005).”
Glia-related mechanisms in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus of the adult rat in response to unilateral conductive hearing loss
Fuentes-Santamaría, V., Alvarado, J., López-Muñoz, D., Melgar-Rojas, P., Gabaldón-Ull, M. C., & Juiz, J. (2014) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2014.00319 · Cited by 18
“F). the healthy and injured brain (Guthrie et al., 1995; Watt and Hobbs, 2000; Hanisch, 2002; Parish et al., 2002).”
Background
The BCL-2 family protein Bid is critical for pro-inflammatory signaling in astrocytes
König, H., Coughlan, K. S., Kinsella, S. M., Breen, B. A., & Prehn, J. H. M. (2014) · Neurobiology of Disease · doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2014.06.008 · Cited by 14
“operate with TNF-α to induce oxidative stress (Hanisch, 2002; Mir et al., 2009).”
Role of vitamin D3 in Treatment of Lumbar Disc Herniation—Pain and Sensory Aspects: Study Protocol for a Randomized Controlled Trial
Sedighi, M., & Haghnegahdar, A. (2014) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-15-373 · Cited by 23
A novel rat forelimb model of neuropathic pain produced by partial injury of the median and ulnar nerves
Yil, H., Kiml, M. A., Backl, S. K., Eun, J. S., & Nal, H. S. (2011) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.ejpain.2010.09.014 · Cited by 18
Neuroprotective and plasticity promoting effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS): A role for microglia
d’Errico, P., Früholz, I., Meyer‐Luehmann, M., & Vlachos, A. (2025) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2025.03.012 · Cited by 19
Engineered Mesenchymal Stem Cells Over-Expressing BDNF Protect the Brain from Traumatic Brain Injury-Induced Neuronal Death, Neurological Deficits, and Cognitive Impairments
Choi, B. Y., Hong, D. K., Kang, B. S., Lee, S. H., Choi, S., Kim, H., Lee, S. M., & Suh, S. W. (2023) · Pharmaceuticals · doi:10.3390/ph16030436 · Cited by 22
“Activated microglia initiate morphological changes into an amoeboid pattern, migrate to the injured site, and release several neurotoxic substances such as RNS/ROS, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and metalloproteinases (MMPs) [37,38].”
Background
Spinal interleukin‐1β induces mechanical spinal hyperexcitability in rats: Interactions and redundancies with TNF and IL‐6
König, C., Vazquez, E., Eß, S., Ebbinghaus, M., Vorpahl, B., Ebersberger, A., & Schaible, H. (2021) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15438 · Cited by 17
“Since microglial cells are a source of spinal IL- 1β (Hanisch, 2002; Nieto et al., 2016) and since microglia responds to TNF stimulation (König et al., 2016), we explored whether TNF might have an effect on the presumed release of IL- 1β.”
Background
ATP-evoked intracellular Ca2+ transients shape the ionic permeability of human microglia from epileptic temporal cortex
Palomba, N. P., Martinello, K., Cocozza, G., Casciato, S., Mascia, A., Gennaro, G. D., Morace, R., Esposito, V., Wulff, H., Limatola, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-021-02096-0 · Cited by 18
Neuroprotective effects of DAAO are mediated via the ERK1/2 signaling pathway in a glaucomatous animal model
Zhang, X., Zhang, R., Chen, J., & Wu, J. (2019) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2019.107892 · Cited by 19
Thymulin treatment attenuates inflammatory pain by modulating spinal cellular and molecular signaling pathways
Nasseri, B., Zaringhalam, J., Daniali, S., Manaheji, H., Abbasnejad, Z., & Nazemian, V. (2019) · International Immunopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.intimp.2019.02.042 · Cited by 17
Food allergy induces alteration in brain inflammatory status and cognitive impairments
Liqing, Z., Chen, L., Li, X., Li, T., Dong, Z., & Wang, Y. T. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.01.011 · Cited by 24
“It has been reported that active microglia can secrete TNF-α [45].”
Background
Central Administration of 5Z-7-Oxozeaenol Protects Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mice by Inhibiting Microglia Activation
Lu, L.-L., Zhang, X.-P., Tong, H., Zhang, W.-L., Xu, P.-Y., & Qu, S.-G. (2017) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00789 · Cited by 17
“Excessive or continuous activation of microglia leads to direct neurotoxicity, characterized by the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as TNF-α, IL-6, and NO) and impaired neural cell function (Hanisch, 2002; Xu et al., 2016).”
Background
Social interaction modulates the neuroinflammatory response to global cerebral ischemia in male mice
Gaudier‐Diaz, M. M., Zhang, N., Haines, A. H., Surbhi, Zhou, M., & DeVries, A. C. (2017) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2017.08.008 · Cited by 13
Dynamic and extensive metabolic state-dependent regulation of cytokine expression and circulating levels
Petersen, P. S., Lei, X., Seldin, M. M., Rodriguez, S., Byerly, M. S., Wolfe, A., Whitlock, S., & Wong, G. W. (2014) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00335.2014 · Cited by 18
“Although typically secreted by lymphocytes and macrophages, the secretion of cytokines by microglial cells suggests that these factors may act through central pathways in the brain to influence metabolic processes in the peripheral tissues (32, 60, 75).”
Background
The effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) on pain-related behavior in a rat model of neuropathic pain
Saito, H., Wakai, J., Sekiguchi, M., Kikuchi, S., & Konno, S. (2014) · European spine journal · doi:10.1007/s00586-014-3392-x · Cited by 17
Sleep deprivation attenuates endotoxin-induced cytokine gene expression independent of day length and circulating cortisol in male Siberian hamsters (Phodopus sungorus)
Ashley, N. T., Walton, J. C., Haim, A., Zhang, N., Prince, L. A., Fruchey, A. M., Lieberman, R. A., Weil, Z. M., Magalang, U. J., & Nelson, R. J. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.083832 · Cited by 20
“These cells assume an activated state when induced by LPS and rapidly produce proinflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1, IL-6 and TNF (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Functions of connexins and large pore channels on microglial cells: The gates to environment
Mika, T., & Prochnow, N. (2012) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.07.020 · Cited by 15
Prothrombin Kringle-2: a potential inflammatory pathogen in the parkinsonian dopaminergic system
Leem, E., Jeong, K. H., Won, S.-Y., Shin, W.-H., & Kim, S. R. (2016) · Experimental Neurobiology · doi:10.5607/en.2016.25.4.147 · Cited by 16
Carvacrol Inhibits Expression of Transient Receptor Potential Melastatin 7 Channels and Alleviates Zinc Neurotoxicity Induced by Traumatic Brain Injury
Lee, M., Lee, S.-H., Choi, S., Choi, B.-Y., & Suh, S. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232213840 · Cited by 16
“Activated microglia initiate morphological changes into an amoeboid pattern, migrating to the injured site and releasing a number of neurotoxic substances such as RNS/ROS, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and metalloproteinases (MMPs) [40,41].”
Background
Novel Therapies for Parkinsonian Syndromes–Recent Progress and Future Perspectives
Przewodowska, D., Marzec, W. Z., & Madetko‐Alster, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Molecular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnmol.2021.720220 · Cited by 20
“, 2015); these cells release cytokines crucial for processes related to nervous system activity and immune responses (Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Dorsal hippocampal interleukin-1 signaling mediates heroin withdrawal-enhanced fear learning
Parekh, S. V., Paniccia, J. E., Lebonville, C. L., & Lysle, D. T. (2020) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05645-2 · Cited by 19
“While multiple cell types express IL-1β (Bland et al. 2009; Hanisch 2002), we found that astrocytes are predominantly responsible for the DH IL1β expression involved in SEFL.”
Background
The influence of sex, genotype, and dose on serum and hippocampal cytokine levels in juvenile mice developmentally exposed to a human-relevant mixture of polychlorinated biphenyls
Matelski, L., Keil, K. P., Sethi, S., Taylor, S. L., de Water, J. V., & Lein, P. J. (2020) · Current Research in Toxicology · doi:10.1016/j.crtox.2020.09.001 · Cited by 20
“…the hypothalamus of adult female offspring (P145-147 rats) following developmental exposure through diet to a PCB mixture based on blood profiles of Inuit mothers in Arctic Canada that included PCB congeners 28, 52, 101, 118, 138, 153, and 180 in common with the MARBLES mix (Hayley et al., 2011).”
Method
Parenchymal and non‐parenchymal immune cells in the brain: A critical role in regulating CNS functions
Arcuri, C., Mecca, C., Giambanco, I., & Donato, R. (2019) · International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2019.04.005 · Cited by 19
“…(lipo)teichoic acid of gram-positive bacteria and, in general, bacterial cell wall components, viral envelopes and other infectious agents, platelet-activating factor (PAF), complement factors and lipids are all effective in inducing cytokine production (Nakajima and Kohsaka, 2001; Hanisch, 2002).”
Background
Role of astroglia in diet-induced central neuroplasticity
Clyburn, C., & Browning, K. N. (2019) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00823.2018 · Cited by 19
“…a stimulation method-dependent and celltype specific release of cytokines (Aloisi et al. 1992; Chung and Benveniste 1990; Lee et al. 1993); astroglial networks, therefore, may themselves also induce and support central neuroinflammation (Colonna and Butovsky 2017, Hanisch 2002; Norden et al. 2016).”
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Evaluating the Role of Microglial Cells in Clearance of Aβ from Alzheimer’s Brain
Manchikalapudi, A. L., Chilakala, R. R., Kalia, K., & Sunkaria, A. (2019) · ACS Chemical Neuroscience · doi:10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00627 · Cited by 18
Myeloid Cell IRF4 signaling protects neonatal brains from hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy
al Mamun, A., Yu, H., Mirza, M., Romana, S., McCullough, L. D., & Liu, F. (2018) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2018.12.014 · Cited by 16
“…myeloid cells (mainly microglia and monocytes) are the major source of inflammatory cytokines in neuroinflammation (Garcia-Culebras et al., 2018; Hanisch, 2002; Mirza et al., 2015; Welser-Alves and Milner, 2013), and these cells are tightly controlled by IRFs to exhibit either pro- or…”
Background

Authors: Hanisch, U.
Affiliations: Max Delbrück Center (DE)
Corresponding author: Hanisch, Uwe‐Karsten
Venue: Glia
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2002-10-04
Volume: 40
Issue: 2
Pages: 140-155
ISSN: 0894-1491 (ISSN-L)
1098-1136
DOI: 10.1002/glia.10161
OpenAlex: W2090804892
Cited by: 1,645
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 29 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 79 · 2016: 70 · 2015: 81 · 2014: 86 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 93
FWCI: 4.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Glia (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Biological Psychiatry › Tryptophan and brain disorders
Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Inflammasome and immune disorders
Keywords: microglia, cytokines, chemokines, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, neuroprotection, astrocyte-microglia interaction, tissue repair, neurotoxicity, neuropathology, innate immunity
MeSH terms: Animals, Cell Communication, Endocrine System, Endothelium, Vascular, Humans, Neuroglia, Neurons, Cytokines, Microglia

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Microglia as a source and target of cytokines

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