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The immunomodulatory properties of probiotic microorganisms beyond their viability (ghost probiotics: proposal of paraprobiotic concept)
Open accessAbstract
The probiotic approach represents a potentially effective and mild alternative strategy for the prevention and treatment of either inflammatory or allergic diseases. Several studies have shown that different bacterial strains can exert their probiotic abilities by influencing the host's immune system, thereby modulating immune responses. However, the emerging concern regarding safety problems arising from the extensive use of live microbial cells is enhancing the interest in non-viable microorganisms or microbial cell extracts, as they could eliminate shelf-life problems and reduce the risks of microbial translocation and infection. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the scientific literature concerning studies in which dead microbial cells or crude microbial cell fractions have been used as health-promoting agents. Particular attention will be given to the modulation of host immune responses. Possible mechanisms determining the effect on the immune system will also be discussed. Finally, in the light of the FAO/WHO definition of probiotics, indicating that the word 'probiotic' should be restricted to products that contain live microorganisms, and considering the scientific evidence indicating that inactivated microbes can positively affect human health, we propose the new term 'paraprobiotic' to indicate the use of inactivated microbial cells or cell fractions to confer a health benefit to the consumer.
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Inactivation methods may affect structural components of the cell differently, and therefore their biological activities.
“Importantly, these methods of inactivation may affect structural components of the cell differently, and therefore their biological activities [264, 265].”
From International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Probiotics (2019) · cites this paper as [264]
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“Our group has shown that L. plantarum (Lp), both live and heat-inactivated (in the latter form as a paraprobiotic (Taverniti & Guglielmetti, 2011)), when administered directly to the respiratory tract, results in robust and sustained protection against the lethal sequelae of PVM infection.”
BackgroundMohr, A. E., Pugh, J., O'Sullivan, O., Black, K., Townsend, J. R., Pyne, D. B., Wardenaar, F. C., West, N. P., Whisner, C. M., & McFarland, L. V. (2022) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.809983 · Cited by 27
Lee, Y.-S., Noh, D.-I., Lee, S.-J., Jeon, M.-H., Kim, Y.-R., Jang, W. J., & Lee, E.-W. (2025) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1093/jambio/lxaf256 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Taverniti, V., & Guglielmetti, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Milan (IT)
- Corresponding author
- Guglielmetti, Simone
- Venue
- Genes & Nutrition
- Published
- 2011-04-16
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 261-274
- ISSN
- 1555-8932 (ISSN-L)
- 1865-3499
- PMC
- PMC3145061
- OpenAlex
- W2073900522
- Cited by
- 703
- References
- 77
- Citations by year
- 2026: 74 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 75 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 91 · 2021: 85 · 2020: 56 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 22 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 7
- FWCI
- 17.78
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Genes & Nutrition (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- BOA (University of Milano-Bicocca) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Probiotics and Fermented Foods
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Microbial Metabolites in Food Biotechnology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Keywords
- probiotics, paraprobiotics, immunomodulation, microbial translocation, probiotic safety
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