Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Monetary Delay Discounting: A Meta-Analysis of Case-Control Studies
Open accessAbstract
Background A growing number of studies have investigated delay discounting, a behavioral economic index of impulsivity, and its relevance to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but with mixed findings. The current meta-analysis synthesizes the literature on the relationship between monetary delay discounting and ADHD in studies using case-control designs. Specifically, the objectives were: 1) to characterize the aggregated differences in monetary delay discounting between individuals with ADHD (cases) and controls in studies using categorical case-control designs; 2) to examine potential differences based on sample age (<18 vs. >18), reward outcome (real vs. hypothetical), and prevalence of conduct disorder and oppositional defiant disorder in the sample; and 3) to evaluate potential small-study (publication) bias in the literature.Methods From 567 candidate articles, 21 independent investigations yielded 25 case-control comparisons (total N=3,913). Random effects meta-analysis was conducted using Cohen's d as the common effect size. Publication bias was evaluated using fail-safe N, Begg-Mazumdar and Egger tests, and metaregression of publication year and effect size.Results Across studies, a statistically significant difference of medium magnitude effect size was present for the case-control comparisons (d=0.43; p < 10-15). No significant differences based on sample age, reward outcome, or comorbid status was detected. Minimal heterogeneity and evidence of publication bias was present.Conclusions These findings provide robust evidence that delay discounting is significantly elevated among individuals with ADHD compared to controls. Gaps in the literature and the importance of characterizing the neural and genetic bases of this relationship are discussed.
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ADHD is associated with moderate tendency to favor small immediate rewards over large delayed rewards.
“Two meta-analyses, one with 21 studies and over 3,900 participants, the other with 15 studies with over a thousand participants, found that those diagnosed with ADHD have a moderate tendency to favor small immediate rewards over large delayed rewards (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; Marx et al., 2018).”
From The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based conclusions about the disorder (2021) · cites this paper as Jackson and MacKillop, 2016
Discount rate is highly correlated with a variety of health behaviors and disorders, with medium effect sizes across studies.
“Supporting this belief, discount rate is highly correlated with a variety of health behaviors and disorders, with medium effect sizes across studies (Amlung, Petker, Jackson, Balodis, & MacKillop, 2016; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; MacKillop et al., 2011).”
From Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review (2019) · cites this paper as Jackson & MacKillop, 2016
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“With regard to delay discounting, there is evidence that delay discounting preferences are heritable from studies using both non-human animals (65; 66) and twin cohorts (67; 68).”
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“In addition, steep temporal discounting may be a cause of the high comorbidity between ADHD and substance use disorders (SUDs) (25; 26).”
BackgroundNeural and Behavioral Mechanisms of Impulsive Choice in Alcohol Use Disorder
Claus, E. D., Kiehl, K. A., & Hutchison, K. E. (2011) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2011.01455.x · Cited by 130 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, alcohol misuse has been implicated with distinct patterns of neural activity in subunits of the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulate and anterior insula, among others, during delay discounting decision making (57-59).”
BackgroundCharacterizing heterogeneity in children with and without ADHD based on reward system connectivity
Costa Dias, T. G., Iyer, S. P., Carpenter, S. D., Cary, R. P., Wilson, V. B., Mitchell, S. H., Nigg, J. T., & Fair, D. A. (2015) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2014.12.005 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
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Orbitofrontal reward sensitivity and impulsivity in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Wilbertz, G., Tebartz van Elst, L., Delgado, M. R., Maier, S., Feige, B., Philipsen, A., & Blechert, J. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.12.011 · Cited by 125 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As a proliferation of studies on delay discounting and ADHD has emerged over the last five years, several have not reported significant associations (32; 33), suggesting the link may be weaker or more ambiguous than initially believed.”
BackgroundAttention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Matthews, M., Nigg, J. T., & Fair, D. A. (2013) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-45758-0_249 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
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“In another pediatric study, three clinical groups - individuals with ADHD, individuals with autism spectrum disorder, and individuals with both - were contrasted with each other and control participants (53).”
ResultDemurie, E., Roeyers, H., Baeyens, D., & Sonuga‐Barke, E. (2012) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01178.x · Cited by 111 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Subsequently, studies using iterative behavioral tasks systematically examining preferences for monetary rewards have revealed similar patterns in children, adolescents, and adults (14-18).”
BackgroundRapport, M. D., Tucker, S. B., DuPaul, G. J., Merlo, M., & Stoner, G. D. (1986) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/bf00915440 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
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Impulsivity in adult ADHD patients with and without cocaine dependence
Crunelle, C. L., Veltman, D. J., Oortmerssen, K. V. E., Booij, J., & van den Brink, W. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.09.006 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Strain differences in delay discounting using inbred rats
Wilhelm, C., & Mitchell, S. H. (2009) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/j.1601-183x.2009.00484.x · Cited by 84 · cited 1× · see citing works
“With regard to delay discounting, there is evidence that delay discounting preferences are heritable from studies using both non-human animals (65; 66) and twin cohorts (67; 68).”
BackgroundAmlung, M. T., Sweet, L. H., Acker, J. D., Brown, C. L., & MacKillop, J. M. (2012) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12017 · Cited by 76 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, alcohol misuse has been implicated with distinct patterns of neural activity in subunits of the prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, anterior cingulate and anterior insula, among others, during delay discounting decision making (57-59).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe neural correlates of temporal reward discounting
Scheres, A., de Water, E., & Mies, G. W. (2013) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1246 · Cited by 74 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Indeed, studies of delay discounting using fMRI have directly implicated the ventral striatum in delay discounting, among a number of other regions, including subunits of prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, anterior insula, and anterior cingulate (24; 49).”
BackgroundMultidimensional examination of impulsivity in relation to disordered gambling.
MacKillop, J., Miller, J. D., Fortune, E. E., Maples, J. L., Lance, C. E., Campbell, W. K., & Goodie, A. S. (2014) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/a0035874 · Cited by 69 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Recent factor analyses suggest that when multiple measures of impulsivity are examined concurrently, latent aggregations of measures emerge (5-7), suggesting that impulsivity appears to be a psychological genus that subsumes a number of species.”
BackgroundSelf-citationvan de Glind, G., Oortmerssen, K. V. E., Carpentier, P. J., LEVIN, F. R., Koeter, M. W. J., Barta, C., Kaye, S. S., Skutle, A., Franck, J., Konstenius, M., et al. (2013) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1397 · Cited by 66 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Conversely, in a large recent study of treatment-seeking individuals with SUDs, over 40% screened positive for ADHD (27).”
BackgroundAge modulates the effect of COMT genotype on delay discounting behavior
Smith, C. T., & Boettiger, C. A. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2653-9 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition, a small number of molecular genetic studies have implicated dopamine- related polymorphisms and delay discounting (58; 69-72) and one has investigated this question among individuals with ADHD (73).”
BackgroundGenetic influences on addiction : an intermediate phenotype approach
MacKillop, J. M., & Munafo, M. R. (2014) · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationHurst, R. M., Kepley, H. O., McCalla, M. K., & Livermore, M. K. (2010) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054710365993 · Cited by 57 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Subsequently, studies using iterative behavioral tasks systematically examining preferences for monetary rewards have revealed similar patterns in children, adolescents, and adults (14-18).”
BackgroundGambling, Delay, and Probability Discounting in Adults With and Without ADHD
Dai, Z., Harrow, S.-E., Song, X., Rucklidge, J. J., & Grace, R. C. (2013) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054713496461 · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As a proliferation of studies on delay discounting and ADHD has emerged over the last five years, several have not reported significant associations (32; 33), suggesting the link may be weaker or more ambiguous than initially believed.”
BackgroundSonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Kumsta, R., Schlotz, W., Lasky-Su, J. A., Marco, R., Miranda, A., Mulas, F., Oades, R. D., Banaschewski, T., Mueller, U., et al. (2011) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.01.040 · Cited by 48 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Of note, however, serotonin and norepinephrine also appear to play important roles (50; 51; 74) and two studies have found associations between polymorphisms in serotonin and noradrenergic genes and delay discounting preferences (75; 76).”
BackgroundStrong genetic influences on measures of behavioral‐regulation among inbred rat strains
Richards, J. B., Lloyd, D. R., Kuehlewind, B., Militello, L., Paredez, M., Woods, L. C. S., & Palmer, A. A. (2013) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12050 · Cited by 45 · cited 1× · see citing works
“With regard to delay discounting, there is evidence that delay discounting preferences are heritable from studies using both non-human animals (65; 66) and twin cohorts (67; 68).”
BackgroundFassbender, C., Houde, S., Silver-Balbus, S., Ballard, K., Kim, B., Rutledge, K. J., Dixon, J. F., Iosif, A., Schweitzer, J. B., & McClure, S. M. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00642 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Demurie, E., Roeyers, H., Baeyens, D., & Sonuga-Barke, E. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.03.011 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Subsequently, studies using iterative behavioral tasks systematically examining preferences for monetary rewards have revealed similar patterns in children, adolescents, and adults (14-18).”
BackgroundGray, J. C., & MacKillop, J. (2014) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.284 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition, a small number of molecular genetic studies have implicated dopamine- related polymorphisms and delay discounting (58; 69-72) and one has investigated this question among individuals with ADHD (73).”
BackgroundSelf-citationYu, X., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., & Liu, X. (2015) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715570390 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
MacKillop, J., Gray, J. C., Bidwell, L. C., Bickel, W. K., Sheffer, C. E., & McGeary, J. E. (2015) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-015-4029-4 · Cited by 22 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In addition, a small number of molecular genetic studies have implicated dopamine- related polymorphisms and delay discounting (58; 69-72) and one has investigated this question among individuals with ADHD (73).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHavranek, M. M., Hulka, L. M., Tasiudi, E., Eisenegger, C., Vonmoos, M., Preller, K. H., Mößner, R., Baumgartner, M. R., Seifritz, E., Grünblatt, E., et al. (2015) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12324 · Cited by 17 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Of note, however, serotonin and norepinephrine also appear to play important roles (50; 51; 74) and two studies have found associations between polymorphisms in serotonin and noradrenergic genes and delay discounting preferences (75; 76).”
BackgroundAn Intermediate Phenotype Approach to Addiction Genetics
MacKillop, J. M., & Munafo, M. R. (2013) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9391.003.0003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citation
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Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Scheidel G (2013): Delay and probability discounting functions of adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) [dissertation]. Utah State University, Logan, Utah.
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Sorted by citations
Faraone, S. V., Banaschewski, T., Coghill, D., Zheng, Y., Biederman, J., Bellgrove, M. A., Newcorn, J. H., Gignac, M., Al Saud, N. M., Manor, I., et al. (2021) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.01.022 · Cited by 1,545 · see citing works
“…Two meta-analyses, one with 21 studies and over 3900 participants, the other with 15 studies with over a thousand participants, found that those diagnosed with ADHD have a moderate tendency to favor small immediate rewards over large delayed rewards (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; Marx et al., 2021).”
Delay Discounting as a Transdiagnostic Process in Psychiatric Disorders
Amlung, M. T., Marsden, E., Holshausen, K., Morris, V. L., Patel, H., Vedelago, L., Naish, K. R., Reed, D. D., & McCabe, R. E. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.2102 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Steep discounting of delayed monetary and food rewards in obesity: a meta-analysis
Amlung, M., Petker, T., Jackson, J., Balodis, I., & MacKillop, J. (2016) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291716000866 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
“…feature of a number of clinical disorders (Bickel et al. 2012), including drug addiction (e.g. MacKillop et al. 2011), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (e.g. Scheres et al. 2008; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016) and, more recently, obesity (e.g. Bickel et al. 2012; Volkow & Baler, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLinking RDoC and HiTOP: A new interface for advancing psychiatric nosology and neuroscience
Michelini, G., Palumbo, I. M., DeYoung, C. G., Latzman, R. D., & Kotov, R. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102025 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Can delay discounting deliver on the promise of RDoC?
Lempert, K. M., STEINGLASS, J. E., Pinto, A., Kable, J. W., & Simpson, H. B. (2018) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291718001770 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“, 2015), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016), mania (Mason et al.”
Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review
Scholten, H., Scheres, A., de Water, E., Graf, U., Granic, I., & Luijten, M. (2019) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01629-2 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Pollak, Y., Dekkers, T. J., Shoham, R., & Huizenga, H. M. (2019) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-019-1019-y · Cited by 138 · see citing works
the 23andMe Research Team, Sanchez-Roige, S., Fontanillas, P., Elson, S. L., Pandit, A., Schmidt, E. M., Foerster, J. R., Abecasis, G. R., Gray, J. C., de Wit, H., et al. (2018) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-017-0032-x · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citationGray, J. C., Amlung, M. T., Palmer, A. A., & MacKillop, J. M. (2016) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.221 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
“…(particularly delay discounting) with addiction, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and obesity (Amlung, Gray, & MacKillop, 2016; Amlung, Petker, Jackson, Balodis, & MacKillop, 2016; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; MacKillop et al., 2011; Poltavski & Weatherly, 2013; Wiehler & Peters, 2015).”
Self-citationMorsink, S., der Oord, S. V., Antrop, I., Danckaerts, M., & Scheres, A. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211050948 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“…show consistently and strongly (with a medium effect size) that individuals with ADHD, when presented with choices between smaller immediate and larger delayed rewards, choose the smaller immediate rewards more often than individuals without ADHD (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBailey, A. J., Romeu, R. J., & Finn, P. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721002282 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“For instance, Johnson and Bickel (2008) recommend that researchers exclude data which do not have sufficiently decreasing indifference points.”
BackgroundThe decision neuroscience perspective on suicidal behavior: evidence and hypotheses
Dombrovski, A. Y., & Hallquist, M. N. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000297 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Doidge, J., Flora, D. B., & Toplak, M. E. (2018) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054718815588 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“In addition to sex differences, it has been well documented that individuals with ADHD tend to prefer smaller immediate rewards compared with TD individuals (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
InfluentialNeuroanatomical foundations of delayed reward discounting decision making
Owens, M. M., Gray, J. C., Amlung, M. T., Oshri, A., Sweet, L. H., & MacKillop, J. M. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.045 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“…DRD has been consistently associated with psychiatric disorders such as substance use ns Research, St. Joseph's Healthcare H disorders, gambling disorder, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Amlung et al., 2016b; Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; MacKillop et al., 2011; Reynolds, 2006).”
Self-citationWeinsztok, S. C., Brassard, S. L., Balodis, I. M., Martin, L. E., & Amlung, M. T. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.786358 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Sanchez‐Roige, S., Jennings, M. V., Thorpe, H. H. A., Mallari, J. E., van der Werf, L. C., Bianchi, S. B., Huang, Y., Lee, C., Mallard, T. T., Barnes, S. A., et al. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02453-y · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Impulsivity has been repeatedly associated with numerous psychiatric diseases, including ADHD and substance use disorders [2, 3].”
BackgroundSelf-citationDekkers, T. J., de Water, E., & Scheres, A. (2021) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.11.002 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
The Role of Neurocognitive Tests in the Assessment of Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Nikolas, M., Marshall, P., & Hoelzle, J. B. (2019) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000688 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Nejati, V., & Yazdani, S. (2020) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2020.1712347 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Bernhardt, N. R., Nebe, S., Pooseh, S., Sebold, M., Sommer, C., Birkenstock, J., Zimmermann, U. S., Heinz, A., & Smolka, M. N. (2017) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.13481 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“, 2016), and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016), and also to self-regulation and health”
BackgroundGrowing out of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Insights from the ‘remitted’ brain
Sudre, G. P., Mangalmurti, A., & Shaw, P. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.08.010 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Remission and the neural substrates of ‘bottom-up' cognitive processes While ADHD is usually linked with deficits in executive function, anomalies in 'bottom-up' cognitive processes including vigilance, the preparation of responses and reward processing have also been implicated in the onset of ADHD (Castellanos et al…”
Solanto, M. V., & Scheres, A. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720951865 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Furthermore, temporal discounting has been shown to be exacerbated in individuals with ADHD (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2017) and to be associated with lower academic achievement (Lee et al., 2012).”
BackgroundCarlisi, C. O., Norman, L., Murphy, C. M., Christakou, A., Chantiluke, K., Giampietro, V., Simmons, A., Brammer, M., Murphy, D. G., MRC AIMS consortium, et al. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717001088 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“The disorder-speci fi c performance impairment in the ASD group may relate to these elevated impulsivity symptoms observed in ASD but not OCD, given that ADHD patients are consistently impaired in TD (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016).”
Development of the frontal lobe
Rosch, K. S., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2019) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-804281-6.00019-7 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Levitt, E. E., Oshri, A., Amlung, M. T., Ray, L. A., Sanchez‐Roige, S., Palmer, A. A., & MacKillop, J. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721005110 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationRisk preferences impose a hidden distortion on measures of choice impulsivity
López-Guzmán, S., Konova, A. B., Louie, K., & Glimcher, P. W. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0191357 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Wagner, B., Clos, M., Sommer, T., & Peters, J. (2020) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0592-20.2020 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Long, Y., Pan, N., Ji, S., Qin, K., Chen, Y., Zhang, X., He, M., Suo, X., Yu, Y., Wang, S., et al. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-022-02130-6 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“On the other hand, atypical reward processing accounts for impulsive decision-making, manifested as greater delay discounting [13, 14] and high risk taking [15, 16].”
BackgroundBeauchaine, T. P., Ben‐David, I., & Sela, A. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176933 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Gray, J. C., MacKillop, J., Weafer, J. J., Hernandez, K. M., Gao, J., Palmer, A. A., & de Wit, H. (2017) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2017.10.047 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationMies, G. W., Ma, I., de Water, E., Buitelaar, J. K., & Scheres, A. (2018) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2018.05.018 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Neuropsychological deficits in adults age 60 and above with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
Thorell, L. B., Holst, Y., Chistiansen, H., Kooij, J. J. S., Bijlenga, D., & Sjöwall, D. (2017) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2017.06.005 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“also been found between ADHD and delay-related behaviors [9,10], although results are more inconsistent compared to those found for executive functioning [11].”
BackgroundResultAttention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the explore/exploit trade-off
Addicott, M. A., Pearson, J. M., Schechter, J. C., Sapyta, J. J., Weiss, M. D., & Kollins, S. H. (2020) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-020-00881-8 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
de Water, E., Mies, G. W., Figner, B., Yoncheva, Y. N., van den Bos, W., Castellanos, F. X., Cillessen, A. H. N., & Scheres, A. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.04.013 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“…Disorder (ADHD), substance abuse, gambling, and conduct disorders) have been found to show steeper TD than typically developing adolescents (Demurie et al., 2012; Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; MacKillop et al., 2011; Patros et al., 2016; Reynolds, 2006; Scheres et al., 2010; White et al., 2014).”
Baseline impulsivity may moderate L-DOPA effects on value-based decision-making
Petzold, J., Kienast, A., Lee, Y., Pooseh, S., London, E. D., Goschke, T., & Smolka, M. N. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-42124-x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Cannabis involvement and neuropsychological performance: findings from the Human Connectome Project
Petker, T. D., Owens, M. M., Amlung, M. T., Oshri, A., Sweet, L. H., & MacKillop, J. M. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1503/jpn.180115 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationMies, G. W., de Water, E., Wiersema, J. R., & Scheres, A. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1508563 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Véronneau-Veilleux, F., Robaey, P., Ursino, M., & Nekka, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncom.2022.849323 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“This imbalance produces abnormally large reward reinforcements, which explains impulsivity, as well as the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger delayed rewards (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundProspective memory (partially) mediates the link between ADHD symptoms and procrastination
Altgassen, M., Scheres, A., & Edel, M. (2019) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-018-0273-x · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Curtis, B. J., Williams, P., & Anderson, J. S. (2018) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsy115 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Syan, S. K., González‐Roz, A., Amlung, M. T., Sweet, L. H., & MacKillop, J. M. (2021) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntab052 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationHeal, D. J., & Smith, S. L. (2021) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/02698811211032475 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“…may follow, for example alcohol, nicotine and illicit drug use, dangerous driving, criminal activities, etc. Impulsive choice as revealed by enhanced delay discounting is exhibited by subjects with ADHD (Anokhin et al., 2011; Jackson and Mackillop, 2016; Mostert et al., 2015; Shiels et al., 2009).”
BackgroundNeurobiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Faraone, S. V., & Radonjić, N. V. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42825-9_33-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Alves, M. B., Laureano, D. P., Dalle Molle, R., Machado, T. D., Salvador, A. P. D. A., Miguel, P. M., Lupinsky, D., Dalmaz, C., & Silveira, P. P. (2019) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.03.010 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Social and delay discounting in autism spectrum disorder
Warnell, K. R., Maniscalco, S., Baker, S. M., Yi, R., & Redcay, E. (2019) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2085 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“ADHD does influence discounting (see Jackson & MacKillop, 2016 for meta-analysis) and some studies have found greater discounting in ADHD than ASD samples (Antrop et al., 2006; Demurie, Roeyers, Baeyens, & Sonuga-Barke, 2013), although other research with delay of gratification suggests that ASD…”
ResultMethylphenidate increases willingness to perform effort in adults with ADHD
Addicott, M. A., Schechter, J. C., Sapyta, J. J., Selig, J. P., Kollins, S. H., & Weiss, M. D. (2019) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2019.06.008 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Individuals with ADHD have been shown to prefer smaller-sooner over larger-later rewards more than non-ADHD peers (Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundApplying behavioral economic theory to problematic Internet use: An initial investigation.
Acuff, S. F., MacKillop, J. M., & Murphy, J. G. (2018) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000404 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Similar relationships have also been observed for obesity (Amlung et al., 2017) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016), suggesting that it is a common process in conditions comprising deficits of self-regulatory capacity.”
Self-citationSchachar, R. J. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105461 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Dekkers, T. J., Huizenga, H. M., Popma, A., Bexkens, A., Zadelaar, J. N., & Jansen, B. R. J. (2019) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00613-7 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Approach to Evaluating and Managing Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Primary Care
Huang, H. Y., Huang, H., Spottswood, M., & Ghaemi, S. N. (2020) · Harvard Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/hrp.0000000000000248 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Shoham, R., Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Yaniv, I., & Pollak, Y. (2020) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054720950820 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“All of these factors are known to have significant impact upon judgment and choice and are also correlated with ADHD (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Maslowsky et al., 2011; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundBaseline performance moderates stimulant effects on cognition in youth with ADHD.
Fosco, W. D., Rosch, K. S., Waxmonsky, J. G., Pelham, W. E., & Hawk, L. W. (2020) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000374 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Telomere length in alcohol dependence: A role for impulsive choice and childhood maltreatment
Kang, J. I., Hwang, S. S., Choi, J. R., Lee, S., Kim, J., Hwang, I. S., Kim, H. W., Kim, C., & Kim, S. J. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.024 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Using the temporal motivation theory to explain the relation between ADHD and procrastination
Turgeman, R. N., & Pollak, Y. (2023) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2023.2218540 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Sensitivity to delay overlaps with steeper delay discounting, which has been linked to ADHD in several meta-analyses (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Marx et al., 2018, 2021; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundAmphetamines Improve the Motivation to Invest Effort in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Chong, T. T. ‐., Fortunato, E., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0982-23.2023 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“This is an important consideration given that greater delay discounting is a consistent finding in ADHD (Sonuga-Barke et al., 2008; Jackson and MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundYates, J. R., Gunkel, B. T., Rogers, K. K., Hughes, M. N., & Prior, N. A. (2016) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-016-4469-5 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Increased impulsive choice is observed in individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; see Jackson and MacKillop 2016 for a recent metaanalysis), schizophrenia (Ahn et al. 2011; Heerey et al. 2007; Weller et al. 2014), bipolar disorder (Ahn et al. 2011), Parkinson’s disease…”
BackgroundDeRosa, J., Rosch, K. S., Mostofsky, S. H., & Nikolaidis, A. (2023) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13870 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Dexter, T. D., Roberts, B. Z., Ayoub, S. M., Noback, M. N., Barnes, S. A., & Young, J. W. (2024) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.16243 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Elevated DD (preference for small, immediate re - wards) is observed across several such disorders (Ahn et al., 2011; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Petry, 2001; Heerey et al., 2007 ; Pennisi et al., 2023 ; Amlung et al., 2017 ; Phung et al., 2019; Table 9).”
Petker, T. D., DeJesus, J., Lee, A., Gillard, J., Owens, M. M., Balodis, I. M., Amlung, M. T., George, T. P., Oshri, A., Hall, G. B., et al. (2020) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000354 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationThorell, L. B., Sjöwall, D., Mies, G. W., & Scheres, A. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000421 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…scores on delay-discounting tasks have high discriminative validity, as individuals with impulse-control problems—including ADHD—show increased preferences for immediate rewards compared with typically developing controls (see meta-analyses by Jackson & Mackillop, 2016 and Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialGenomic basis of delayed reward discounting
Gray, J. C., Sanchez‐Roige, S., de Wit, H., MacKillop, J., & Palmer, A. A. (2019) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2019.03.006 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationPresynaptic dopamine function measured with [18F]fluorodopa and L-DOPA effects on impulsive choice
Petzold, J., Lee, Y., Pooseh, S., Oehme, L., Beuthien‐Baumann, B., London, E. D., Goschke, T., & Smolka, M. N. (2019) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-019-54329-1 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
A systematic review of the main anomalies in intertemporal choice
Rambaud, S. C., Fernández, P. O., & Oller, I. M. P. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2023.101999 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Nejati, V., Mirikaram, F., & Rad, J. A. (2023) · Neurophysiologie Clinique · doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2023.102884 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Yu, X., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2016) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054716661231 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Despite these obvious differences between the task paradigms, recent meta-analyses failed to take account of task type when estimating discounting differences between ADHD and controls (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Patros et al., 2016).”
ResultTanaka, S., Yahata, N., Todokoro, A., Kawakubo, Y., Kano, Y., Nishimura, Y., Ishii‐Takahashi, A., Ohtake, F., & Kasai, K. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-24944-5 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The Concept of Food Addiction: a Review of the Current Evidence
Naish, K. R., MacKillop, J. M., & Balodis, I. M. (2018) · Current Behavioral Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s40473-018-0169-2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationPetker, T. D., Ferro, M. A., Ameringen, M. V., Murphy, J. G., & MacKillop, J. M. (2021) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05781-3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationPosttraumatic stress and delay discounting: a meta-analytic review
Bird, B. M., Levitt, E. E., Stewart, S. H., Wanklyn, S. G., Meyer, E. C., Murphy, J. G., McDevitt‐Murphy, M. E., & MacKillop, J. M. (2023) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291723003069 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationSchulze, M., Coghill, D., Lux, S., & Philipsen, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.519840 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“We are currently lacking a systematic investigation of the single presentations since reviews and meta-analyses and most of the single studies have considered all groups in one analysis and do not differentiate between the different ADHD presentations (14, 17).”
BackgroundAssociation of temporal discounting with transdiagnostic symptom dimensions
Keidel, K., Lu, X., Suzuki, S., Murawski, C., & Ettinger, U. (2024) · npj Mental Health Research · doi:10.1038/s44184-024-00060-3 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Intertemporal choice and temporal discounting in children: A review and synthesis
McCormack, T., Canning, C. J., & Graham, A. J. (2024) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2024.101134 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Scheres, A., & Solanto, M. V. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11020181 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Two recent meta-analyses have shown that, when choosing between larger money amounts that are available in the future and smaller money amounts that are available now, individuals with ADHD discount the larger delayed reward more strongly than individuals without ADHD, and thus demonstrate a stronger relative preferen…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialXu, Y., Towe, S. L., Causey, S. T., Dennis, P. A., & Meade, C. S. (2020) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/pha0000423 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Zhang, Q., Wang, S., Zhu, Q., Yan, J., Zhang, T., Zhang, J., Jin, Z., & Li, L. (2022) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114265 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Berry, M. S., Sweeney, M. M., Dolan, S. B., Johnson, P. S., Pennybaker, S. J., Rosch, K. S., & Johnson, M. W. (2020) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-020-01698-8 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“However, another meta-analysis using a larger number of adult studies found that delay discounting was greater among adults (and children) with ADHD (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016).”
Higgins, S. T., Davis, D. R., & Kurti, A. N. (2017) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732216683518 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…unhealthy food choices and physical inactivity, risky sexual practices, and a growing list of other unhealthy behavior patterns (e.g., Barlow, Reeves, McKee, Galea, & Stuckler, 2016; Collado, Johnson, Loya, Johnson, & Yi, 2016; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; MacKillop, 2016; McClelland et al., 2016).”
Backgroundvan Hoorn, J., de Water, E., Dekkers, T. J., Pollak, Y., Popma, A., Jansen, B. R. J., Huizenga, H. M., & van Duijvenvoorde, A. C. K. (2022) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.12065 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Impulsivity is a core feature of attention ‐ deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and has frequently been measured using delay discounting tasks in children and adolescents with ADHD (Barkley, 1997; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Marx et al., 2021; Patros et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPope, D. A., Hutsell, B. A., & Newland, M. C. (2020) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2020.173070 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Knauth, K., & Peters, J. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13996 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Xu, H., MacKillop, J. M., & Owens, M. M. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.25185 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…of DRD (i.e., “steeper” DRD) in individuals with a wide range clinical disorders, such as alcohol use disorders (MacKillop et al., 2010), attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (Jackson & MacKillop, 2016), schizophrenia (Amlung et al., 2019), and binge eating disorder (Appelhans et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHolmes, C. J., Owens, M. M., Beach, S. R. H., McCormick, M., Hallowell, E. S., Clark, U. S., Barton, A. W., Brody, G. H., MacKillop, J., & Sweet, L. H. (2018) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-018-9977-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationGenome‐wide association study of delay discounting in Heterogeneous Stock rats
Lara, M. K., Chitre, A. S., Chen, D., Johnson, B. B., Nguyen, K., Cohen, K. A., Muckadam, S. A., Lin, B., Ziegler, S., Beeson, A., et al. (2024) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12909 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Brown, L. E., Tallon, M., Bellgrove, M., Rudaizky, D., Kendall, G., Boyes, M., & Myers, B. (2025) · Child Psychiatry and Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-025-01815-5 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Oddo, L. E., Acuff, S. F., Arenson, M. B., Oshri, A., Chronis-Tuscano, A. M., MacKillop, J. M., & Murphy, J. G. (2021) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agab070 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationEffort-Related Decision-Making in ADHD
Mitchell, S. H., & Sevigny-Resetco, D. J. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science · doi:10.20900/jpbs.20200027 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Delay discounting procedures assess biases and tradeoffs when choosing between small, immediate rewards versus larger, delayed rewards [18], and metaanalyses indicate that ADHD is associated with heightened delay discounting [19,20].”
BackgroundMurray, A. L., Thye, M. D., Obsuth, I., Cai, S., Lui, M., Orr, C., & Saravanan, A. (2024) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/56066 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…seeking, and differences in reward sensitivity and delay discounting (eg, a preference to receive a smaller reward sooner over a larger reward later) compared to non-ADHD DHI users may be particularly pertinent characteristics to consider when mapping factors influencing engagement [107-109].”
Ikegami, M., & Sorama, M. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13050758 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“For example, children with ADHD exhibit a strong bias towards small, immediate rewards over large, delayed rewards more frequently than typically developing (TD) children [10].”
BackgroundInfluentialUsing rodent data to elucidate dopaminergic mechanisms of ADHD: Implications for human personality
Tripp, G., & Wickens, J. R. (2024) · Personality Neuroscience · doi:10.1017/pen.2023.12 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“…larger delayed rewards in both choice delay and temporal discounting paradigms (Antrop et al., 2006; Firestone & Douglas, 1975; Hoerger & Mace, 2006; Jackson & MacKillop, 2016; Marx, Hacker, Yu, Cortese, & Sonuga-Barke, 2021; Patros et al., 2016; Scheres et al., 2006; Sonuga-Barke et al., 1992).”
BackgroundHarman, M. J. (2021) · Behavior and Social Issues · doi:10.1007/s42822-020-00041-z · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mathar, D., Wiebe, A., Tuzsus, D., Knauth, K., & Peters, J. (2023) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14381 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Timing and delay discounting in attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A translational approach
Fox, A. E., Nicholson, A. M., Singha, D., Thieret, B. A. S., Ortiz, M., & Visser, E. J. (2023) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22399 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
McIntyre‐Wood, C., Madan, C. R., Owens, M. M., Amlung, M. T., Sweet, L. H., & MacKillop, J. M. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119309 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuroanatomical profile of BMI implicates impulsive delay discounting and general cognitive ability
Xu, H., Owens, M. M., & MacKillop, J. M. (2023) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.23880 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Obesity has also been associated with impulsive delayed reward discounting (DRD) [ 4], an index preference for small immediate rewards compared with larger delayed rewards that is also implicated in substance use disorders and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder [5].”
BackgroundSelf-citationParaskevopoulou, M. D., van Rooij, D., Schene, A. H., Scheres, A., Buitelaar, J. K., & Schellekens, A. (2020) · European Addiction Research · doi:10.1159/000509147 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Sanchez‐Roige, S., Jennings, M. V., Thorpe, H. H. A., Mallari, J. E., van der Werf, L. C., Bianchi, S. B., Lee, C., Mallard, T. T., Barnes, S. A., Wu, J. Y., et al. (2022) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2022.01.29.22270095 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Impulsivity has been repeatedly associated with numerous psychiatric diseases, including ADHD and substance use disorders (2,3).”
BackgroundSelf-citationXueke, W., & Tingyong, F. (2023) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2023.02106 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Olson, E. A., Ahmad, S., Granger, S. J., Ashraf, A., Pizzagalli, D. A., & Rosso, I. M. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2023.07.013 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
ADHD and Risk-Taking Behavior: Associations, Mechanisms, and Interventions
Pollak, Y., Shoham, R., Scheres, A., & Dekkers, T. J. (2023) · Autism and child psychopathology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41709-2_12 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pharmacological Modulation of Temporal Discounting: A Systematic Review
Sarmiento, L. F., Ríos-Flórez, J. A., Ardila, H. A. P., de Sousa, P. S. L., Rosa, A. O. L., Herculano, A. M., & Gouvêia, A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11071046 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“This type of decision has higher discount rates in many pathologies such as addictive behavior [8], heroin addiction [9], cocaine addiction [10], alcohol addiction [11], opioiddependents [12], smokers [13], bipolar disorder [14], attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [15], antisocial personality disorder, social an…”
Background
- Authors
- Jackson, J. N. S., & MacKillop, J.
- Affiliations
- Peter Boris Centre for Addictions Research (CA)
- Homewood Research Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- MacKillop, James
- ORCID
- MacKillop, James
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2016-07
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 316-325
- ISSN
- 2451-9022 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5049699
- OpenAlex
- W2267519008
- Semantic Scholar
- 320b88f189ed1913ca16f2e1ca6798c0129b2c7b
- Cited by
- 167
- References
- 94
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 6
- FWCI
- 2.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (P30 DA027827, R01 DA032015)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, delay discounting, impulsivity, monetary rewards, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, publication bias, age differences
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