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Cited by 135Decision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsNeural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesPsychological and Temporal Perspectives Research

Behavioral trainings and manipulations to reduce delay discounting: A systematic review

Open access
Scholten, Hanneke, Scheres, Anouk, de Water, Erik, Graf, Uta, Granic, Isabela, Luijten, Maartje·2019·Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
DOI 10.3758/s13423-019-01629-2PMC PMC6863952
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Abstract

In everyday decision-making, individuals make trade-offs between short-term and long-term benefits or costs. Depending on many factors, individuals may choose to wait for larger delayed reward, yet in other situations they may prefer the smaller, immediate reward. In addition to within-subject variation in the short-term versus long-term reward trade-off, there are also interindividual differences in delay discounting (DD), which have been shown to be quite stable. The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes: the more discounting, the more unhealthy or problematic choices. This has led to the hypothesis that DD can be conceptualized as trans-disease process. The current systematic review presents an overview of behavioral trainings and manipulations that have been developed to reduce DD in human participants aged 12 years or older. Manipulation studies mostly contain one session and measure DD directly after the manipulation. Training studies add a multiple session training component that is not per se related to DD, in between two DD task measurements. Ninety-eight studies (151 experiments) were identified that tested behavioral trainings and manipulations to decrease DD. Overall, results indicated that DD can be decreased, showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable. Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so manipulations involving a future orientation. Limitations and recommendations are discussed to identify the mechanistic processes that allow for changes in discount rate and behavior accordingly.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review of 98 studies (151 experiments) found that delay discounting (DD) can be reduced by behavioral trainings and manipulations, with manipulations showing much stronger success rates than trainings. The most promising avenues were acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings and, especially, future-oriented manipulations such as episodic future thinking and connectivity to future self.

Key findings

  • Across the review, 119 of 98? Wait, text says “majority of published studies (n = 119; 79%) were able to reduce DD,” but only 98 studies were included; this appears to refer to experiments or is inconsistent in the paper. More clearly: 114 of 132 manipulation experiments (86%) reduced DD, whereas only 5 of 19 training experiments (26%) did so.
  • The most effective manipulation categories were future-oriented: episodic future thinking reduced DD in 20 of 24 experiments (83%), and connectivity to future self reduced DD in 10 of 11 experiments (91%).
  • Acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings were the most promising training category: four studies, two found significant DD decreases and two found mixed results (food DD decreased, money DD did not).
  • Among experiments with secondary behavioral outcomes, all 7 training experiments with such outcomes found expected positive behavioral effects; EFT studies also reported reductions in smoking, caloric intake, and hypothetical alcohol purchase.

Methods

  • Systematic review following PRISMA; searches in PubMed, PsychInfo, and Web of Science yielded 8,969 hits, 1,520 duplicates removed, 7,449 unique references, plus 8 from reference lists; 178 full texts screened, yielding 98 included studies.
  • Inclusion criteria: human participants aged 12+; monetary DD outcome; behavioral training or manipulation aimed at decreasing DD; self-directed choices; sample size >10; published 1990–April 2017 in English peer-reviewed journals.
  • Studies were categorized as trainings (19 studies, 19 experiments) or manipulations (79 studies, 132 experiments); manipulations were grouped into future, social factors, emotion, and framing categories. No meta-analysis or effect-size computation was performed.

Limitations

  • Stated: wide variability in trainings/manipulations complicates comparison; publication bias could not be formally checked; most included studies did not report effect sizes or statistics allowing effect-size calculation.
  • Stated: many studies lacked proper control conditions, did not directly compare experimental and control conditions, were poorly powered, or used different DD assessment methods; only two experiments included participants younger than 18, and many relied on healthy college student samples.
  • Evident from the text: the categorization of manipulations into future, social, emotion, and framing is described by the authors as “purely subjective”; demand characteristics may inflate effects, especially for EFT and future-self manipulations; publication bias is likely more prevalent in manipulation studies than training studies.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3758/s13423-019-01629-2

Cites

225 of 225 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 203 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Seven out of the 19 studies (37%) also reported effects of their training on actual behavior such as smoking or cocaine abstinence, in addition to results on DD.

    “Seven out of the 19 studies (37%) also reported effects of their training on actual behavior such as smoking or cocaine abstinence, in addition to results on DD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    86% (n = 114) of the studies evaluating the effects of manipulations on delay discounting found the expected reductions in delay discounting.

    “Regarding the studies evaluating the effects of manipulations on DD, 86% (n = 114) found the expected reductions in DD”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Ninety-eight studies (151 experiments) were identified that tested behavioral trainings and manipulations to decrease DD.

    “Ninety-eight studies (151 experiments) were identified that tested behavioral trainings and manipulations to decrease DD.”
    • Also stated in: § Search results · plain
      “Next, all 178 full-text studies were screened using the same inclusion criteria, and this resulted in a final number of 98 studies relevant for the review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The majority (n = 14; 74%) of these studies included a clinical population.

    “The majority (n = 14; 74%) of these studies included a clinical population”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There are far more manipulation experiments (n = 132; 87%) compared to trainings (n = 19; 13%).

    “There are far more manipulation experiments available in the literature (n = 132; 87%), compared to trainings (n = 19; 13%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 94
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 38
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The mixed training studies found the expected reductions in delay discounting on a substance-related delay discounting task, but not on a monetary delay discounting task.

    “these studies found the expected reductions in DD on a substance-related DD task, but not on a monetary DD task.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    14 experiments (11%) included clinical populations.

    “14 experiments (11) included clinical populations”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Clinical populations included smokers, individuals with Internet gaming disorder, obese individuals, alcohol-dependent or substance-dependent individuals, and ADHD or amnestic patients.

    “These clinical populations included smokers, individuals with Internet gaming disorder, obese individuals, alcohol-dependent or substance-dependent individuals, and ADHD or amnestic patients.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The selected studies cover a wide variety of behavioral trainings and manipulations that change DD in adolescents and adults.

    “The selected studies cover a wide variety of behavioral trainings and manipulations that change DD in adolescents and adults.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A small number of experiments used a real delay discounting task (n = 2; 1%), a potentially real fill-in-the-blank task (n = 1; 1%) or combined two methods within one experiment (n = 3; 2%).

    “A small number of experiments used a real DD task (n = 2; 1%), a potentially real FITB task (n = 1; 1%) or combined two methods within one experiment (n = 3; 2%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The remaining 26% (n = 5) of studies tested their training in healthy controls.

    “The remaining 26% (n = 5) of studies tested their training in healthy controls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 1 covers all studies applying a training, with a total of 19 studies (each covering one experiment; thus 19 experiments) published between 2008 and 2017.

    “Table 1 covers all studies applying a training, with a total of 19 studies (each covering one experiment; thus 19 experiments) published between 2008 and 2017.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Almost all experiments included adults; only two experiments also included participants younger than 18.

    “Almost all experiments included adults; only two experiments (Fassbender et al., 2014, Study 5; Radu, Yi, Bickel, Gross, & McClure, 2011, Study 2) also included participants younger than 18.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    One experiment combined a real delay discounting and a hypothetical delay discounting task, one experiment combined a potentially real delay discounting task with a hypothetical delay discounting task, and another experiment combined a hypothetical delay discounting task with a hypothetical fill-in-the-blank task.

    “One experiment combined a real DD and a hypothetical DD task, one experiment combined a potentially real DD task with a hypothetical DD task, and another experiment combined a hypothetical DD task with a hypothetical FITB task.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    More than a third of all manipulation experiments (n = 52; 39%) tested its manipulation in healthy control college student samples with a higher percentage of female than male participants (>60%).

    “more than a third of all manipulation experiments (n = 52; 39%) has tested its manipulation in healthy control college student samples with a higher percentage of female than male participants (>60%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Most experiments employed either a hypothetical delay discounting task (n = 77; 51%), a potentially real delay discounting task (n = 46; 30%) or a hypothetical fill-in-the-blank task (n = 22; 15%).

    “most experiments employed either a hypothetical DD task (n = 77; 51%), a potentially real DD task (n = 46; 30%) or a hypothetical FITB task (n = 22; 15%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Most experiments (n = 118; 89%) included healthy controls as their target population.

    “Most experiments (n = 118; 89%) included healthy controls as their target population”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    A total of 132 experiments were conducted within the 79 studies using manipulations to change delay discounting.

    “A total of 132 experiments were conducted within these 79 studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the training experiments, the percentage of healthy control college student samples with more female than male participants was much lower (n = 4; 21%).

    “In the training experiments, the percentage of healthy control college student samples with more female than male participants was much lower (n = 4; 21%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Black and Rosen (2011) found that discounting rates increased and cocaine abstinence rates decreased in the control condition, and both discounting rates and cocaine abstinence remained stable in the ATM condition.

    “The authors found that discounting rates increased and cocaine abstinence rates decreased in the control condition and both discounting rates and cocaine abstinence remained stable in the ATM condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Black and Rosen (2011)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    One contingency management study (16.5%) found expected reductions in delay discounting, one found mixed results on two different delay discounting tasks (16.5%), and four found null results or unexpected increases in delay discounting (67%).

    “One study (16.5%) found expected reductions in DD, one found mixed results on two different DD tasks (16.5%), and four found null results or unexpected increases in DD (67%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Kurti and Dallery (2014) found that neither exercise nor contingency management decreased delay discounting rates.

    “Neither exercise nor CM decreased DD rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kurti and Dallery (2014)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Landes et al. (2012) and Peters et al. (2013) did not find effects on opioid use and marijuana use, respectively.

    “Both studies did not find effects on marijuana (Peters et al., 2013) and opioid use (Landes et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Landes et al. (2012)

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    • cites Peters et al. (2013)

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    Findingcitation

    Yi et al. (2008) found that monetary as well as cigarette delay discounting was decreased in the contingency management condition, whereas no changes were found in the control condition.

    “They found that monetary as well as cigarette DD was decreased in the CM condition, whereas no changes were found in the control condition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yi et al. (2008)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Four studies included an acceptance-based or mindfulness-based approach, two of which found significant decreases in delay discounting and two of which found mixed results.

    “Four studies included an acceptance-based or mindfulness-based approach, two of which found significant decreases in DD and two of which found mixed results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Yao et al. (2017) found that discounting rates and Internet gaming disorder symptoms decreased in the IGD group after an acceptance-based training.

    “Yao et al. (2017) compared a healthy control sample with a sample of individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) and found that discounting rates and IGD symptoms decreased in the IGD group after an acceptance-based training.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yao et al. (2017)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Yoon et al. (2009) found attenuated delay discounting in the contingency management condition on the task comparing monetary and cigarette rewards, but no effects on the monetary delay discounting task.

    “They found attenuated DD in the CM condition on the task comparing monetary and cigarette rewards, but no effects on the monetary DD task.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoon et al. (2009)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Peters et al. (2013) found increases in delay discounting in the CBT-only group, whereas delay discounting rates remained stable in the contingency management conditions.

    “Peters et al. (2013) compared a CBT-only condition with three conditions including CM in marijuana-dependent individuals and found increases in DD in the CBT-only group, whereas DD rates remained stable in the CM conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Peters et al. (2013)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    DeHart et al. (2016) found that delay discounting decreased in the financial education condition at the end of the semester, whereas there was no change found in delay discounting rates in the abnormal psychology condition.

    “DD decreased in the financial education condition at the end of the semester, whereas there was no change found in DD rates in the abnormal psychology condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites DeHart et al. (2016)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Two studies employed a working memory training to reduce delay discounting, one with results in the expected direction on delay discounting whereas the other study did not find any effects.

    “Two studies employed a WM training to reduce DD, one with results in the expected direction on DD whereas the other study did not find any effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    One money-management study found null results for delay discounting, but the expected results for cocaine abstinence; the other study found the expected reductions in delay discounting.

    “One study found null results for DD, but the expected results for cocaine abstinence; the other study found the expected reductions in DD.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Weidberg et al. (2015) demonstrated an increase in smoking abstinence in the contingency management condition at posttest though not at follow-up.

    “but they demonstrated an increase in smoking abstinence in the CM condition at posttest though not at follow-up.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Weidberg et al. (2015)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Kurti and Dallery (2014) found that conditions including contingency management had increased latencies to smoke and decreased total puffs in smokers compared with conditions without contingency management.

    “However, the conditions including CM found increased latencies to smoke and decreased total puffs in smokers compared with conditions without CM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kurti and Dallery (2014)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    One experiment showed a trend toward a decrease in delay discounting (p = .056), but did not convincingly show effects of the connection to future self manipulation on delay discounting.

    “One experiment (9%) showed a trend toward a decrease in DD (p = .056), but did not convincingly show effects of the connection to future (self) manipulation on DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hershfield et al. (2011)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The study by Parthasarathi and colleagues (2017) employed a visualization training and did not find the expected effects on delay discounting.

    “Yet, the study by Parthasarathi and colleagues (Parthasarathi, McConnell, Luery, & Kable, 2017) employed a visualization training and did not find the expected effects on DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Parthasarathi, McConnell, Luery, & Kable, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Daniel et al. (2013b), participants in the EFT condition showed lower delay discounting rates and lower caloric intake compared with the control condition.

    “in the study by Daniel et al. (2013b) they found that the participants in the EFT condition showed lower DD rates and lower caloric intake, compared with the control condition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Daniel et al. (2013b)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Three experiments (13%) did not find that EFT reduced delay discounting and one experiment (4%) found mixed results (i.e., DD decreased in healthy control sample after EFT, but not in the amnestic patients' sample).

    “Three experiments (13%) did not find that EFT reduced DD and one experiment (4%) found mixed results (i.e., DD decreased in healthy control sample after EFT, but not in the amnestic patients’ sample).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In Experiment 1 of Palombo and colleagues (2016), EFT reduced delay discounting in healthy control subjects but not in amnestic subjects.

    “In Experiment 1 of the study by Palombo and colleagues (Palombo, Keane, & Verfaellie, 2016), amnestic and healthy control subjects performed either a standard DD task (control condition) or a DD task with EFT manipulation. EFT reduced DD in healthy control subjects, but not in amnestic subjects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Palombo, Keane, & Verfaellie, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Rass et al. (2015) applied almost the same working memory training and did not find a difference in delay discounting rates between the working memory and control condition.

    “In contrast, Rass et al. (2015) applied almost the same WM training and did not find a difference in DD rates between the WM and control condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rass et al. (2015)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The Bickel et al. (2011b) and Rass et al. (2015) studies included different substance-addicted populations in different addiction stages (stimulant-dependent vs. methadone-maintenance patients).

    “Each study included different substance-addicted population in different addiction stages (stimulant-dependent vs. methadone-maintenance patients)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bickel et al. (2011b)

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    • cites Rass et al. (2015)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Five studies (Chiou & Wu, 2016; Daniel et al., 2013b; Dassen et al., 2016; Snider, LaConte, & Bickel, 2015; Stein et al., 2016) tested for effects on behavior and found reductions in smoking, caloric intake, and hypothetical alcohol purchase.

    “Five studies (Chiou & Wu, 2016; Daniel et al., 2013b; Dassen et al., 2016; Snider, LaConte, & Bickel, 2015; Stein et al., 2016) also tested for effects on behavior and found reductions in smoking, caloric intake, and hypothetical alcohol purchase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chiou & Wu, 2016

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    • cites Daniel et al., 2013b

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    • cites Dassen et al., 2016

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    Findingcitation

    The Bickel et al. (2011b) study included 74% males, whereas the Rass et al. (2015) study included 46% males.

    “Furthermore, the study by Bickel et al. (2011b) included 74% males, whereas the study by Rass et al. (2015) included 46% males.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bickel et al. (2011b)

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    • cites Rass et al. (2015)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Eleven experiments tested manipulations to heighten connectivity to the future self and 10 (91%) were effective in reducing delay discounting rates.

    “Eleven experiments tested manipulations to heighten connectivity to the future (self) and 10 (91%) were effective in reducing DD rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Five experiments tested effects of the presence of a social context on delay discounting; 80% (n = 4) found positive effects on delay discounting, whereas 20% (n = 1) did not find main effects of condition on delay discounting.

    “Five experiments tested effects of the presence of a social context on DD; 80% (n = 4) found positive effects on DD, whereas 20% (n = 1) did not find main effects of condition on DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Augustine and Larsen (2011) and Hirsh, Guindon, Morisano, and Peterson (2010) did not find a reduction in delay discounting rates while using the same sort of affect induction.

    “In contrast, Augustine and Larsen (2011) and Hirsh, Guindon, Morisano, and Peterson (2010) did not find a reduction in DD rates while using the same sort of affect induction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Augustine and Larsen (2011)

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    • cites Hirsh, Guindon, Morisano, and Peterson (2010)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Delay discounting was attenuated in the neutral condition and even more decreased in the positive condition, compared with the negative condition.

    “They found that DD was attenuated in the neutral condition and even more decreased in the positive condition, compared with the negative condition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Guan, Cheng, Fan, and Li (2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Twenty-six experiments all used very different forms of inducing affect or emotional priming with the aim to decrease delay discounting, and 22 (85%) found a decrease in delay discounting rates.

    “Twenty-six experiments all used very different forms of inducing affect or emotional priming with the aim to decrease DD, and 22 (85%) found a decrease in DD rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Four experiments employed a bundling manipulation, of which three (75%) found positive results on delay discounting and one (25%) did not.

    “Four experiments have employed a bundling manipulation, of which three (75%) found positive results on DD and one (25%) did not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Twenty-one experiments attempted to decrease delay discounting by time framing manipulations, 16 (76%) found the expected effects on delay discounting, and five (24%) did not find effects on delay discounting.

    “Twenty-one experiments attempted to decrease DD by time framing manipulations, 16 (76%) found the expected effects on DD, and five (24%) did not find effects on DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of trainings tried to find effects over longer time periods, while the effects of most manipulations were tested just after the manipulation.

    “Second, the majority of trainings tried to find effects over longer time periods, while the effects of most manipulations were tested just after the manipulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Attrition in the training studies reported in this systematic review was on average 15% (range: 0%-50%), with higher dropout rates in more severely affected populations.

    “Attrition in the training studies reported in this systematic review was on average 15% (range: 0%–50%), with higher dropout rates in more severely affected populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Trainings were mostly conducted in clinical populations and manipulations (with a few exceptions) in healthy populations.

    “Third, trainings were mostly conducted in clinical populations and the manipulations (with a few exceptions) in healthy populations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    EFT studies include healthy (62%) as well as different clinical samples (38%).

    “the EFT studies include healthy (62%) as well as different clinical samples (38%)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In this systematic review, the effects of contingency management (CM) on DD rates are mixed, with only 33.3% finding the expected decreases in DD.

    “Although the effects regarding CM on DD rates in this systematic review are mixed (only 33.3% found the expected decreases in DD)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Future episodic thinking (EFT) and connectivity to future (self) manipulations have effectiveness rates of 83% and 91%, respectively.

    “especially “future episodic thinking” and “connectivity to future (self)” manipulations with 83% and 91% effectiveness rates, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    EFT studies find promising effects on smoking behavior (40%), caloric intake (40%) and hypothetical alcohol purchase (20%).

    “find promising effects on smoking behavior (40%), caloric intake (40%) and hypothetical alcohol purchase (20%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Twenty-six experiments examined reframing of rewards; 25 (96%) found positive results on delay discounting.

    “However, the way these two amounts are described seem to matter according to 26 experiments. Of these 26 experiments, 25 (96%) found positive results of the reframing of reward manipulation on DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Differences between studies are high: some studies did not include a proper control condition, some did not directly compare experimental and control conditions, and others included poorly powered designs or did not report effect sizes or statistics to calculate effect sizes.

    “Differences between studies are high: Some studies did not include a proper control condition, some did not directly compare the experimental and control condition, and others included poorly powered designs or did not report effect sizes or statistics to calculate effect sizes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the current systematic review, only two experiments included a sample younger than 18 years of age, with all other studies heavily relying on healthy control college student samples.

    “in the current systematic review, only two experiments included a sample younger than 18 years of age, with all other studies heavily relying on healthy control college student samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Rung and Madden (2018b) included a review and analysis of animal studies, studies with child populations, and studies before 1990, but did not report on possible effects of DD trainings or manipulations on behavior.

    “Furthermore, Rung and Madden (2018b) included a review and analysis of animal studies, studies with child populations, and studies before 1990, but did not report on possible effects of DD trainings or manipulations on behavior.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rung and Madden, 2018b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.

    “Overall, results indicated that DD can be decreased, showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Unhealthy or problematic behaviors frequently have a delayed effect on health.

    “Frequently, unhealthy or problematic behaviors have a delayed effect on health—for example, smoking a cigarette right now has detrimental effects on one’s health in the long run.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards is associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes, with more discounting associated with more unhealthy or problematic choices.

    “The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes: the more discounting, the more unhealthy or problematic choices.”
    • Also stated in: § Glossary of acronyms in text and tables · plain
      “The extent to which individuals discount the value of delayed rewards turns out to be associated with important health and disorder-related outcomes, and there is growing interest in trainings and manipulations that decrease heightened DD.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Intraindividual differences in DD rate are substantial; within individuals, DD rate changes as a function of contextual/situational factors.

    “At the same time, there is a growing number of studies that suggest that intraindividual differences in DD rate are substantial as well: Within individuals, DD rate changes as a function of contextual/situational factors (Bickel, 2015; Gray & MacKillop, 2015; Odum, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bickel, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gray & MacKillop, 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Odum, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Little is understood about effective ways to alter heightened discount rates.

    “While attention to the topic of reducing DD is growing, little is understood about effective ways to alter heightened discount rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    A systematic review was not performed at the time of our search.

    “Although the literature provides a small number of important narrative reviews discussing the promise of DD trainings and manipulations (e.g., Bickel et al., 2015; Gray & MacKillop, 2015; Koffarnus et al., 2013; Lempert & Phelps, 2016), a systematic review was not performed at the time of our search.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Increased DD rates are characteristic of a range of maladaptive and unhealthy behaviors including alcohol dependence, drug dependence, gambling problems, tobacco use, overeating, ADHD, conduct disorder, and risky sexual behaviors.

    “Specifically, increased DD rates are characteristic of maladaptive and unhealthy behaviors including alcohol dependence”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bobova et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bickel et al., 2011a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Reynolds, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Authors H.S. and U..G independently determined whether the inclusion criteria were met by reading the titles and abstracts.

    “Authors H.S. and U..G independently determined whether the inclusion criteria were met by reading the titles and abstracts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so manipulations involving a future orientation.

    “Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so manipulations involving a future orientation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Contingency management is a well-researched and effective behavioral training to increase drug abstinence across substance-dependent disorders.

    “Contingency management (CM) is a well-researched and effective behavioral training to increase drug abstinence across substance-dependent disorders (Stanger et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stanger et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The effects of contingency management are substance specific and do not transfer to monetary delay discounting tasks.

    “could be an indication that the effects of CM are substance specific and do not transfer to monetary DD tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Yi et al. (2008) provided no results on carbon monoxide levels for the control condition, which did not allow a direct comparison between both conditions.

    “Yet no results on CO levels were provided for the control condition, which did not allow a direct comparison between both conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yi et al. (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Delay discounting is profoundly context dependent and changeable.

    “showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of an active control condition and baseline differences in delay discounting between the IGD and healthy control groups make it difficult to fully interpret the findings of Yao et al. (2017).

    “These two factors make it difficult to fully interpret the findings”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yao et al. (2017)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increasing the ability to vividly imagine future events by visualization training could theoretically lead to a decrease in discounting rates.

    “Increasing the ability to vividly imagine future events by visualization training could then theoretically lead to a decrease in discounting rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both abstract and concrete mindsets, including mentally imagining a smaller spatial distance, seem to be effective in decreasing delay discounting rates.

    “In conclusion, both abstract and concrete mindsets, including mentally imagining a smaller spatial distance, seem to be effective in decreasing DD rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Some theoretical models of discounting hypothesize that delayed outcomes are less concrete or less vivid than immediate outcomes, and therefore individuals tend to prefer immediate outcomes over delayed ones.

    “Some theoretical models of discounting hypothesize that delayed outcomes are less concrete or less vivid than immediate outcomes, and therefore individuals tend to prefer immediate outcomes over delayed ones (Rick & Loewenstein, 2008; Trope & Liberman, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rick & Loewenstein, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Trope & Liberman, 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Different theoretical frameworks and methods are used, but in the end the future event is made available and more concrete to the participant.

    “Different theoretical frameworks and methods are used, but in the end the future event is made available and more concrete to the participant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Construal level theory proposes that temporal distance alters people's responses to future events by systematically changing the way people mentally represent those events.

    “Construal level theory (CLT) proposes that temporal distance alters people’s responses to future events by systematically changing the way people mentally represent those events (Trope & Liberman, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trope & Liberman, 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    If a bias to the present is driven by contextual and concrete representations, then endorsing an abstract mindset should decrease the extent of these representations and thus attenuate delay discounting.

    “This hypothesis is grounded in the argument that if a bias to the present is driven by contextual and concrete representations, then endorsing an abstract mindset should decrease the extent of these representations and thus attenuate delay discounting (Malkoc et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Malkoc et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Natural environments indicate resource abundance, and therefore individuals choose more often for larger but future outcomes.

    “Another, evolutionary, explanation states that natural environments indicate resource abundance, and therefore individuals choose more often for larger but future outcomes (van der Wal et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van der Wal et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Natural environments are serene, thereby increasing attentional capacity and/or reducing general arousal, and by viewing them perception of time is lengthened.

    “Natural environments are serene, thereby increasing attentional capacity and/or reducing general arousal, and by viewing them perception of time is lengthened (Berry et al., 2014; Berry et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Berry et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Berry et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lempert, Johnson, and Phelps (2016) employed the same date/delay manipulation but did not replicate the findings of the previous studies.

    “The experiment by Lempert, Johnson, and Phelps (2016) employed the same manipulation but did not replicate the findings of the previous studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lempert, Johnson, and Phelps (2016)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Hofmeyr, Ainsli, Charlton, and Ross (2011) and Kirby and Guastello (2001), discounting rates decreased when participants were allocated to the suggested condition.

    “In both studies, discounting rates decreased when participants were allocated to the suggested condition”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hofmeyr, Ainsli, Charlton, and Ross (2011)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kirby and Guastello (2001)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Based on the four studies, bundling seems to decrease delay discounting rates, but may partly depend on reward magnitude.

    “Based on the four studies, bundling seems to decrease DD rates, but may partly depend on reward magnitude.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    When an individual makes a choice on behalf of their group, they prefer alternatives geared towards the group's long-term benefit.

    “The presence of a social context could influence decision-making, based on the rationale that when an individual makes a choice on behalf of their group (i.e., including themselves), they prefer alternatives geared towards the group’s long-term benefit (Bickel, Jarmolowicz, Mueller, Franck, et al., 2012a).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bickel, Jarmolowicz, Mueller, Franck, et al., 2012a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The inconsistent findings leave the exact interaction between emotion and delay discounting to be uncovered.

    “These inconsistent findings leave the exact interaction between emotion and DD to be uncovered.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both positive and negative affect/emotional priming can result in decreases in delay discounting.

    “Thus, both positive and negative affect/emotional priming can result in decreases in DD”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Exposure to natural environments decreases stress, increases happiness, improves mood, and restores attention.

    “For example, exposure to natural environments decreases stress, increases happiness, improves mood, and restores attention (Berto, 2005; Bowler, Buyung-Ali, Knight, & Pullin, 2010; White, Alcock, Wheeler, & Depledge, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Berto, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bowler, Buyung-Ali, Knight, & Pullin, 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites White, Alcock, Wheeler, & Depledge, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    The experiments by Zauberman, Kim, Malkoc, and Bettman (2009), Ebert and Prelec (2007), and Rabinovich, Morton, and Postmes (2010) did not find effects on delay discounting.

    “Of the other four experiments that did not find effects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Zauberman, Kim, Malkoc, & Bettman, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Ebert and Prelec (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Rabinovich, Morton, & Postmes, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    The difference in design (within-subject with randomly intermixed trials vs between-subject or separate blocks) may explain the failure to replicate the date/delay effect.

    “Since discount rates are susceptible to order presentation (Robles & Vargas, 2008), this may explain the failure to replicate the date/delay effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Robles & Vargas, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Through acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, individuals with addictive problems learn to accept negative feelings associated with moments of cravings and therefore get through these moments and stay abstinent.

    “through acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, individuals with addictive problems learn to accept negative feelings associated with moments of cravings and therefore get through these moments and stay abstinent”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ashe et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The effects of the manipulations could very well be short-lived and context-specific effects that quickly disappear over time.

    “the effects of the manipulations could very well be short-lived and context-specific effects that quickly disappear over time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    More impulsive people might find waiting in the moment particularly aversive, and their prime motivation is to escape those negative feelings by choosing immediate rewards.

    “more impulsive people might find waiting in the moment particularly aversive, and their prime motivation is to escape those negative feelings by choosing immediate rewards”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sonuga-Barke, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Training effects tend to decay over time, with effect sizes generally largest at posttest and decreasing at follow-up.

    “We know that training effects tend to decay over time, with effect sizes generally being the largest at posttest and decreasing at follow-up”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Cuijpers, van Straten, Smit, Mihalopoulos, & Beekman, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Moyer, Finney, Swearingen, & Vergun, 2002 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Prendergast, Podus, Finney, Greenwell, & Roll, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most intervention theories related to elevated DD rates attempt to change individuals' heightened emphasis on immediate rewards toward a more future-oriented focus, whereas acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings concentrate on experiencing and accepting the aversiveness of the present moment.

    “Most intervention theories related to elevated DD rates attempt to change individuals’ heightened emphasis on immediate rewards toward a more future-oriented focus, whereas acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings concentrate on experiencing and accepting the aversiveness of the present moment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ashe, Newman, & Wilson, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Following intention-to-treat principles, all participants should be included in analyses, regardless of whether they actually received treatment, and dropouts are included as nonabstainers.

    “Following intention-to-treat principles, all participants should be included in analyses, regardless of whether they actually received treatment, and thus dropouts are included in the analyses as nonabstainers”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Brorson et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Montori and Guyatt, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The alternative focus on improving DD by decreasing the aversiveness of the present moment is strengthened with significant effects on behavior, such as food behaviors, addictive behaviors, and other mental and physical health problems.

    “this alternative focus on improving DD by decreasing the aversiveness of the present moment is strengthened with significant effects on behavior, such as food behaviors”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Olson & Emery, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gifford et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Petersen & Zettle, 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Attrition in clinical studies is common and is frequently seen in studies with substance-abuse samples.

    “Attrition in clinical studies is common and is frequently seen in studies with substance-abuse samples”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brorson, Arnevik, Rand-Hendriksen, & Duckert, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    DD is profoundly context dependent within individuals, despite possible between-subject stability.

    “although there may be between-subject stability to DD, it is also profoundly context dependent within individuals”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    It remains unclear whether changes in behavior are mediated by changes in DD and, if so, whether these effects are substance specific.

    “However, it remains unclear whether changes in behavior are mediated by changes in DD and, if so, whether these effects are substance specific”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Video games are a ubiquitous part of our current society.

    “video games are a ubiquitous part of our current society”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Granic, Lobel, & Engels, 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Demand characteristics could likely play a role in 'connectivity to future (self)' manipulations and 'construal level thinking manipulations (concretization).'

    “Besides effects on EFT, demand characteristics could likely play a role in “connectivity to future (self)” manipulations and “construal level thinking manipulations (concretization).””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Not only has heightened DD been correlated with health and disorder-related outcomes, but lower-than-average discount rates have also been associated with pathology (e.g., anorexia).

    “not only has heightened DD been correlated with health and disorder-related outcomes, but lower-than-average discount rates have also been associated with pathology (e.g., anorexia; Decker, Figner, & Steinglass, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Decker, Figner, & Steinglass, 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There are some overarching mechanisms of change that could explain results over different trainings and manipulations.

    “there are some overarching mechanisms of change that could explain results over different trainings and manipulations, content wise.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    For some individuals for whom delay aversion is the main reason for steep DD, acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings may be more appropriate, whereas for others driven by reward immediacy, future manipulations may be more effective.

    “For some individuals, for whom delay aversion is the main reason for steep DD, acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings may be more appropriate, whereas for others, who are driven by reward immediacy in steep DD, the future manipulations may be more effective.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    From both a human impact and economic perspective, there is a strong rationale to focus more on youth.

    “From both a human impact and economic perspective, there is a strong rationale to focus more on youth”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Coughlan et al., 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McGorry, 2013 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites McGorry, Purcell, Hickie, & Jorm, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisecitation

    Choosing for immediate rewards, and thus steep discounting, is hypothesized to be the result of a high aversion to delay.

    “Sonuga-Barke and colleagues (Sonuga-Barke, 2005; Sonuga-Barke, Taylor, Sembi, & Smith, 1992) have hypothesized that choosing for immediate rewards, and thus steep discounting, is the result of a high aversion to delay.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sonuga-Barke, 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sonuga-Barke, Taylor, Sembi, & Smith, 1992 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Changing the way reward magnitudes are presented or drawing attention to the 'costs' of the immediate reward are ways to change discount rates.

    “Changing the way reward magnitudes are presented (reframing of reward manipulations; decimal effects) or drawing the attention to the “costs” of the immediate reward (reframing of reward manipulations; explicit-zero effects; CM trainings; money-management-based trainings) are ways to change discount rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ADHD experience relatively strong negative emotions during waiting times, resulting in a preference to escape delay.

    “it has been shown that individuals with ADHD experience relatively strong negative emotions during waiting times, resulting in a preference to escape delay”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Mies, Ma, De Water, Buitelaar, & Scheres, 2018 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Scheres, Tontsch, & Thoeny, 2013b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Van Dessel et al., 2018 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Smoking during adolescence has a direct negative effect on youth's health and is a significant predictor of nicotine dependence in adulthood.

    “smoking during adolescence has a direct negative effect on youth’s health and is a significant predictor of nicotine dependence in adulthood”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mermelstein, 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals showing steeper discounting also show a more present orientation and a shorter future time perspective, which is associated with a range of problematic behaviors.

    “individuals showing steeper discounting also show a more present orientation and a shorter future time perspective, which is associated with a range of problematic behaviors”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Teuscher & Mitchell, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so future-oriented manipulations.

    “Most promising avenues to pursue in future research seem to be acceptance-based/mindfulness-based trainings, and even more so future-oriented manipulations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Overall, results showed that DD can be decreased and thus that DD is a changeable construct.

    “Overall, results showed that DD can be decreased and thus that DD is a changeable construct”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    At this point it is unknown whether the relation between DD rates and health behaviors is correlational or causal; the mere fact that discounting is correlated with psychopathology does not necessarily mean that reducing discounting would reduce psychopathology.

    “at this point we do not know whether this relation between DD rates and health behaviors is correlational or causal in nature; the mere fact that discounting is correlated with psychopathology does not necessarily mean that reducing discounting would reduce psychopathology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: High delay discounting rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Affective and emotional states can change DD rates, but likely depend on the specific properties of the affective state.

    “affective and emotional states can change DD rates, but likely depend on the specific properties of the affective state”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Individuals with ADHD symptoms show a larger present orientation and a more negative view of the future than controls.

    “individuals with ADHD symptoms show a larger present orientation and a more negative view of the future than the controls”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carelli & Wiberg, 2012 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Different methods were used to assess DD, and these methods vary systematically in their outcomes.

    “different methods were used to assess DD, and these methods vary systematically in their outcomes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Scheres, de Water, et al., 2013a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Weatherly, 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both thorough, longer lasting, active trainings and short-lived on-off manipulations could be successful in changing DD rates and behavior, depending on the purpose of the intervention.

    “Both thorough, longer lasting, and active trainings as well as more short lived on–off manipulations could be successful in changing DD rates and behavior, depending on the purpose of a certain intervention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Delaying interventions until adulthood is undesirable, and a focus on youth is imperative.

    “Therefore, delaying interventions until adulthood is undesirable, and a focus on youth is imperative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
115 of 115

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The division of manipulations into four main categories is subjective.

    “Please note that this division is purely subjective, and some studies combine multiple manipulation categories.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    More knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.

    “based on the idea that more knowledge of money management increases the salience of future rewards and makes those more concrete.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A higher connectedness to the future self implies a greater willingness to defer benefits to the future self.

    “based on the notion that a higher connectedness to the future (self) implies a greater willingness to defer benefits to the future self.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The more detailed information is available, the more a future event can be construed in a concrete way, corresponding to a low-level construal.

    “The rationale behind this hypothesis is that the more detailed information is available, the more a future event can be construed in a concrete way, corresponding to a low-level construal.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    High delay discounting rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors.

    “Though high DD rates are associated with unhealthy behaviors”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The most promising ways to lower discount rates are episodic future thinking and mindfulness-based training/acceptance-based training.

    “The most promising ways to lower discount rates are episodic future thinking and mindfulness-based training/acceptance-based training48,49.”

    From Temporal discounting predicts procrastination in the real world (2024) · cites this paper as [49]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Bundling summary overstates the suggested condition's effect

    Minor

    The text says discounting decreased in the suggested condition in both cited studies. Table 2 reports no change for that condition in Hofmeyr et al.; only its forced condition decreased DD among smokers.

  • Wrong Yi study cited for the group-choice manipulation

    Minor

    The social-context discussion attributes a group-choice manipulation to Yi et al. (2008), but Table 1 describes that study as a smoking/CM training. Table 2 attributes the choosing-for-a-group experiment to Yi et al. (2010).

  • Yi et al. comparison conflicts with the table's interaction result

    Minor

    The text says the CM and control conditions were not directly compared statistically for DD. Table 1 nevertheless reports a condition-by-time interaction for their DD results, which entails a comparison between conditions.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Ainslie, G. (1992). Picoeconomics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  2. Rachlin, H. (1989). Judgment, decision and choice. New York: W. H. Freeman.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Scholten, H., Scheres, A., de Water, E., Graf, U., Granic, I., & Luijten, M.
Affiliations
Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
Corresponding author
Scholten, Hanneke
ORCID
Venue
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2019-07-03
Volume
26
Issue
6
Pages
1803-1849
ISSN
  • 1069-9384 (ISSN-L)
  • 1531-5320
DOI
10.3758/s13423-019-01629-2
PMC
PMC6863952
OpenAlex
W2954189525
Semantic Scholar
cd06ac92ad358d63a8dae4ccd0fff22241787e19
Cited by
135
References
225
Citations by year
2026: 13 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 1
FWCI
1.61
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
  • Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
Funders
Radboud University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Temporal Perspectives Research
Keywords
delay discounting, behavioral training, controlling behavior, delayed rewards, intertemporal choice, mindfulness training, future orientation, individual differences, context sensitivity
MeSH terms
Cognitive Remediation, Humans, Reward, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Mindfulness, Delay Discounting

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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