Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Swedish Groundwater and Surface Water: Implications for Environmental Quality Standards and Drinking Water Guidelines
Abstract
The aim of this study was to assess per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Swedish aquatic environment, identify emission sources, and compare measured concentrations with environmental quality standards (EQS) and (drinking) water guideline values. In total, 493 samples were analyzed in 2015 for 26 PFASs (∑ 26 PFASs) in surface water, groundwater, landfill leachate, sewage treatment plant effluents and reference lakes, focusing on hot spots and drinking water sources. Highest ∑ 26 PFAS concentrations were detected in surface water (13 000 ng L –1 ) and groundwater (6400 ng L –1 ). The dominating fraction of PFASs in surface water were perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs; 64% of ∑ 26 PFASs), with high contributions from C 4 –C 8 PFCAs (94% of ∑PFCAs), indicating high mobility of shorter chain PFCAs. In inland surface water, the annual average (AA)-EQS of the EU Water Framework Directive of 0.65 ng L –1 for ∑PFOS (linear and branched isomers) was exceeded in 46% of the samples. The drinking water guideline value of 90 ng L –1 for ∑ 11 PFASs recommended by the Swedish EPA was exceeded in 3% of the water samples from drinking water sources ( n = 169). The branched isomers had a noticeable fraction in surface– and groundwater for perfluorooctanesulfonamide, perfluorohexanesulfonate, and perfluorooctanesulfonate, highlighting the need to include branched isomers in future guidelines.
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Few studies have sought to characterize PFAS contamination profiles in public drinking water supplies that do not have a clear contamination source.
“Few studies have sought to characterize PFAS contamination profiles in public drinking water supplies that do not have a clear contamination source (Gobelius et al., 2018; Sims et al., 2022).”
From PFAS in Iowa drinking water sources: Chemical and geospatial patterns (2025) · cites this paper as Gobelius et al., 2018
Similar observations have been reported in Europe and the USA.
“Similar observations have been reported in Europe and the USA [42,70,80].”
From Investigating the extent of PFAS contamination in the Upper Danube Basin across environmental compartments (2025) · cites this paper as [42]
Total PFAS concentrations at N23, N60, and N62 are lower than those previously reported in surface water linked to primary sources including AFFF, landfill leachates, and industrial discharges.
“Also, the total concentrations are lower than those previously reported in surface water linked to primary sources including AFFF,37,38 landfill leachates,35 and industrial discharges.39”
From Sources and Pathways of PFAS Occurrence in Water Sources: Relative Contribution of Land-Applied Biosolids in an Agricultural Dominated Watershed (2025) · cites this paper as [35]
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- Authors
- Gobelius, L., Hedlund, J., Dürig, W., Tröger, R., Lilja, K., Wiberg, K., & Ahrens, L.
- Affiliations
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SE)
- Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Ahrens, Lutz
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2018-03-12
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 4340-4349
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2791059491
- Cited by
- 198
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2026: 26 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 3 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 8.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Naturv?rdsverket (NV-02893-15)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fluoride Effects and Removal
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Chemical Analysis and Environmental Impact
- Keywords
- per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS contamination, groundwater, surface water, environmental quality standards, perfluoroalkyl carboxylates, PFOS, PFHxS, landfill leachate, sewage treatment plant effluent, Water Framework Directive
- MeSH terms
- Carboxylic Acids, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Sweden, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Groundwater, Drinking Water
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