Structure-function design of amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa proteins as hydrocolloids for emulsion and gel structuring

The effective availability of amino acid profiles during digestion depends on matrix associations.

“Likewise, the effective availability of amino acid profiles during diges­ tion depends on matrix associations.”

• cites Lițoiu et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.2 (Proteins; page unavailable) describes buckwheat’s amino acid profile, while Section 2.5 (Vitamins and Minerals; page unavailable) explains that release from the food matrix during digestion affects bioaccessibility. The latter discussion concerns minerals and bioactive compounds, not whether matrix associations determine the digestive availability of amino acids. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Fu et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The same protein can form very different colloidal states depending on processing severity and chemical association.

“These results illustrate that the same protein can form very different colloidal states depending on processing severity and chemical associ­ ation”

• cites Alimi et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mykolenko et al., 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.4.6 (page unavailable) reports that amaranth fibril morphologies varied with incubation temperature and duration, supporting the processing-severity part of the claim. Section 3.4.4 discusses possible hydrogen-bond disruption during hydrolysis, but the paper does not establish chemical association as a separate determinant of the different colloidal states. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Whether these reactions translate into measurable functional changes depends on processing treatments and conditions.

“However, whether these reactions translate into measurable functional changes depends on processing treatments and conditions”

• cites Das et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lin et al., 2025 sourceSupported

Common buckwheat 2S albumins contain established allergenic proteins, including Fag e 1 and Fag e 2.

“Common buckwheat 2S albumins contain established allergenic proteins, including Fag e 1 and Fag e 2.”

• cites Katsube-Tanaka & Monshi, 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ninomiya et al., 2022 sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction discusses buckwheat albumin and its functional properties, but does not identify 2S albumins or allergenic proteins. Searches for Fag e 1, Fag e 2, 2S albumin, and allergy found no passage addressing the claim in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.74)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Saponins are most relevant in quinoa protein ingredients because their retention depends strongly on washing, soaking, alkaline extraction, and isoelectric precipitation conditions.

“Saponins are most relevant in quinoa protein ingredients because their retention depends strongly on washing, soaking, alkaline extrac­ tion, and isoelectric precipitation conditions”

• cites Manzanilla-Valdez et al., 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.10.6 (page unavailable) reports saponin levels in quinoa protein ingredients and suggests that water-soluble saponins may become concentrated during protein extraction. It does not establish that retention depends strongly on washing, soaking, alkaline extraction, or isoelectric precipitation conditions individually, or that saponins are the most relevant compounds in these ingredients. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Thermal and alkaline treatments tend to increase β-sheets, β-turns and decrease α-helix, consistent with enhanced β-aggregation and cross-linking.

“Thermal and alkaline treatments tend to increase β -sheets, β -turns and decrease α -helix, consistent with enhanced β -aggregation and cross-linking”

• cites Chang et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusion and §3.1.2 (FTIR analysis; page unavailable) support a heat-induced shift from α-helix toward β-sheet in quinoa protein isolate, but the FTIR results vary by treatment: atmospheric boiling decreased β-sheet, while baking increased α-helix. The paper studies thermal treatments, not alkaline treatment, and does not establish the claimed β-aggregation and cross-linking interpretation. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Cui et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Results and discussion section (“Impact of extraction pH on the heat-induced aggregation of QPI”; page unavailable) reports heat-induced aggregation and suggests covalent interactions contribute to insoluble aggregates. It does not report increases in β-sheets or β-turns, a decrease in α-helix, or a link between those specific structural changes and aggregation; searches for those secondary-structure terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Liu et al., 2023 sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion (§3.2; page unavailable) say that QPI’s secondary structure was almost retained across extraction pH levels, not that alkaline extraction increased β-sheets and β-turns or decreased α-helix. The paper does report aggregation during high-pH extraction (§3.2) and heat-induced aggregation (§3.3), but it does not establish the claimed secondary-structure changes or link them to enhanced cross-linking. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Specific routes such as pH-shift combined with heating or ultrasound, HPH and ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction often reduce floc size from 0.8-1.2 μm to 0.15-0.5 μm.

“By contrast, specific routes such as pH-shift combined with heating or ultrasound, HPH and ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction often reduce floc size from 0.8-1.2 μ m to 0.15-0.5 μ m.”

• cites Wang et al., 2025aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Yang et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao et al., 2023b sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1 reports that high-pressure homogenization reduced the mean particle size of quinoa protein from 4093 nm to as little as 252 nm. The paper does not support the claimed starting range of 0.8–1.2 μm or address the other named routes, including pH-shift combinations and ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Legume and oat proteins provide the more direct structural and colloidal comparison for interpreting pseudocereal protein functionality.

“legume and oat proteins provide the more direct structural and colloidal comparison for interpreting pseu­ docereal protein functionality (Graziano et al., 2022; Mylvaganam et al., 2025; Yan et al., 2025).”

• cites Graziano et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mylvaganam et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and the protein–polyphenol table discuss structural and functional properties of legume proteins, including pea and soy. They do not establish that legume and oat proteins are a more direct comparison for interpreting pseudocereal functionality; the oat-related reference concerns phenolics rather than oat protein structure or colloidal properties. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.79)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Yan et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Pseudocereal proteins can shift between soluble globulin-like assemblies, dissociated subunits, colloidal particles, and heat- or pH-induced aggregates, leading to similar trade-offs among solubility, molecular emulsification, particle-assisted stabilization, and gelation.

“Like legume proteins, pseudocereal proteins can shift between soluble globulin-like assemblies, dissociated subunits, colloidal particles, and heat- or pH-induced aggregates, leading to similar trade-offs among solubility, molecular emulsification, particle-assisted stabilization, and gelation (Rashwan et al., 2025; Xu et al., 2023).”

• cites Rashwan et al., 2025 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Xu et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Larger aggregates or microgels may support network formation even when solubility is low.

“Larger aggregates or microgels may support network formation even when solubility is low”

• cites Liu et al. (2023) sourceSupported
• cites Marinacci et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hua et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Comparative profiling of isolates from three grains converges on a shared backbone of 11S/13S legumin-like globulins and low-molecular-weight albumins.

“Comparative profiling of isolates from three grains nevertheless converges on a shared backbone of 11S/13S legumin-like globulins and low-molecular-weight (MW) albumins.”

At colloidal level, neutral quinoa dispersions can be dominated by large flocs of 0.8-1.2 μm.

“At colloidal level, neutral quinoa dispersions can be dominated by large flocs of 0.8-1.2 μ m.”

Reported differences in albumin/globulin/glutelin proportions among amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa should be interpreted together with the extraction trajectory rather than as purely crop-specific composition.

“Therefore, reported differences in albumin/globulin/glutelin proportions among amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa should be interpreted together with the extraction trajectory rather than as purely crop-specific composition.”

Buckwheat protein microgels can cooperate with cellulose nanofibers to produce highly viscoelastic emulsion gels suited for 3D-printing.

“Amaranth proteins can form electrostatic hydrogels with xanthan gum, while buckwheat protein microgels can cooperate with cellulose nanofibers to produce highly viscoelastic emulsion gels suited for 3D-printing (Cortez-Trejo et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2025b).”

• cites Wang et al., 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In such systems, stability is governed by network percolation and droplet trapping rather than by rapid molecular adsorption alone.

“In such systems, stability is governed by network percolation and droplet trapping rather than by rapid molecular adsorption alone”

• cites Song et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wang et al., 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Albumin-rich extracts often show stronger low-MW bands than isolates obtained by alkaline extraction.

“Importantly, albumin-rich extracts often show stronger low-MW bands than isolates obtained by alkaline extraction.”

• cites Aguilar-Padilla et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Further structuring routes can drive proteins toward distinct results, including compact particles in the nano-to submicron range or extended fibrillar/amyloid-like assemblies.

“Further structuring routes can drive proteins toward distinct results, including compact particles in the nano-to submicron range or extended fibrillar/amyloid-like assemblies.”

• cites Alimi et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mykolenko et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

This pattern indicates the formation of very high-molecular-mass aggregates rather than a gradual increase in oligomer size.

“This pattern indicates the formation of very high-molecular-mass ag­ gregates rather than a gradual increase in oligomer size”

• cites Li et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

These microgel and particle states are mechanistically important because they support viscoelastic behavior in emulsion gels and low-internal-phase systems.

“These microgel and particle states are mechanistically important because they support viscoelastic behavior in emulsion gels and low-internal-phase systems.”

• cites Song et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wang et al., 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Pseudocereal proteins provide a more balanced essential amino acid profile than many staple cereals.

“Their proteins also provide a more balanced essential amino acid profile than many staple cereals (Kaur et al., 2025; Nandan et al., 2024).”

• cites Kaur et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Nandan et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Comparable DIAAS or true ileal digestibility data are still scarce for amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein isolates, especially after extraction, pH-shift processing, emulsification, gelation, or incorporation into structured food matrices.

“com­ parable digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS) or true ileal digestibility data are still scarce for amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein isolates, especially after extraction, pH-shift processing, emul­ sification, gelation, or incorporation into structured food matrices.”

For amaranth, SEC of purified 11S globulins typically resolves a dominant oligomeric peak consistent with trimeric assemblies (150-170 kDa), with smaller dimeric (90-100 kDa) and monomeric (50 kDa) species.

“For amaranth, SEC of purified 11S globulins typically resolves a dominant oligomeric peak consistent with trimeric assemblies (150-170 kDa), with smaller dimeric (90-100 kDa) and monomeric (50 kDa) species”

• cites Aguilar-Padilla et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

All three pseudocereals show a lysine advantage relative to many prolamin- or glutelin-dominant cereal proteins, where lysine is commonly limiting.

“Within this limitation, all three pseudocereals show a lysine advantage relative to many prolamin- or glutelin-dominant cereal proteins, where lysine is commonly limiting.”

Grain co-components such as saponins in quinoa and phenolics in buckwheat can form complexes with proteins and reduce protease accessibility.

“Grain co-components such as sa­ ponins in quinoa and phenolics in buckwheat can form complexes with proteins and reduce protease accessibility.”

• cites Lițoiu et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Fu et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

A clear knowledge gap is the limited availability of standardized protein-quality data beyond amino acid composition.

“A clear knowledge gap is the limited availability of standardized protein-quality data beyond amino acid composition.”

Current protein-quality comparisons rely largely on amino acid composition and simplified digestibility assays, which do not fully capture amino acid bioavailability in final formulations.

“Therefore, current protein-quality comparisons rely largely on amino acid composition and simplified digestibility assays, which do not fully X. Yan and F. Zhu capture amino acid bioavailability in final formulations.”

Amaranth proteins can form electrostatic hydrogels with xanthan gum.

“Amaranth proteins can form electrostatic hydrogels with xanthan gum, while buckwheat protein microgels can cooperate with cellulose nanofibers to produce highly viscoelastic emulsion gels suited for 3D-printing (Cortez-Trejo et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2025b).”

• cites Cortez-Trejo et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Lysine-rich proteins may provide more nucleophilic sites that can participate in processing reactions such as glycation or oxidation-associated crosslinking.

“Lysine-rich proteins may provide more nucleophilic sites that can participate in processing reactions such as glycation or oxidation-associated crosslinking.”

• cites Das et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Lin et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Protein quality metrics reported for isolated proteins may not translate directly to real formulations unless co-components are controlled and digestion models are comparable.

“Therefore, protein quality metrics reported for isolated proteins may not translate directly to real formulations unless co-components are controlled and digestion models are comparable”

• cites Lițoiu et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Fu et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Amide-I deconvolution is sensitive to baseline correction, component assignment, and the extent of aggregation.

“Amide-I deconvolution is sensitive to baseline correction, component assignment, and the extent of aggregation.”

More directed structuring (e.g., controlled fibrillation or blending fibrils with 2S albumins) can generate amyloid-like small aggregates or fibrillar assemblies.

“More directed structuring (e.g., controlled fibrillation or blending fibrils with 2S albumins) can generate amyloid-like small aggregates or fibrillar assemblies”

• cites Chen et al., 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Fu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Quinoa saponins may compete with or reinforce protein adsorption layers, thereby altering interfacial properties, stability and digestion behavior.

“Quinoa saponins may compete with or reinforce protein adsorption layers, thereby altering interfacial properties, stability and digestion behavior (Qu et al., 2025).”

• cites Qu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Aggregation structures largely determine dispersibility, interfacial assembly and gel/network formation.

“which largely determines dispersibility, interfacial assembly and gel/network forma­ tion.”

For amaranth, purified 11S globulin typically shows α-helices (10-15%) and β-sheets (35-40%), with the remainder β-turns and unordered structures.

“For amaranth, purified 11S globulin typically shows α -helices (10-15%) and β -sheets (35-40%), with the remainder β -turns and unordered structures”

• cites Aguilar-Padilla et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Reports on common buckwheat globulin typically show 16% of α-helices and 35% of β-sheets, with substantial β-turns and unordered fractions.

“Reports on common buckwheat globulin typically show 16% of α -helices and 35% of β -sheets, with substantial β -turns and unordered fractions”

• cites Jin et al., 2021 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Globulin-rich storage proteins across amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa share a legumin-type oligomeric backbone.

“Across amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa, globulin-rich storage proteins share a legumin-type oligomeric backbone”

Molecular mass and particle size are frequently reported without harmonized conditions.

“A critical point is that molecular mass and particle size are frequently reported without harmonized conditions.”

Under broadly comparable extraction and testing conditions, the globulin/albumin-dominant compositional baseline of amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa is often associated with pH-responsive solubility and interfacial activity.

“Under broadly comparable extraction and testing conditions, this compositional baseline is often associated with pH-responsive solubility and interfacial activity.”

Processing that promotes covalent association, including heating, glycation, phenolic coupling, often shifts SEC profiles toward material eluting near the void volume.

“Processing that promotes covalent association, including heating, glycation, phenolic coupling, often shifts SEC profiles toward material eluting near the void volume.”

• cites Li et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Quinoa shows genotype- and process-dependent variation, with reported lysine, leucine and threonine values varying across genotypes and extraction conditions.

“Quinoa also shows genotypeand process-dependent variation, with reported lysine, leucine and threonine values varying across genotypes and extraction conditions”

• cites Wang et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wu et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

This variation likely contributes to the contrasting solubility trends, adsorption behavior, Pickering/HIPEs performance, and gelation pathways reported across studies.

“This variation likely contributes to the contrasting solubility trends, adsorption behavior, Pickering/HIPEs performance, and gelation pathways reported across studies.”

Their aggregation structures span from soluble oligomers (SEC-resolvable) to submicron particles and micro-scale flocs (DLS-resolvable).

“but their aggrega­ tion structures span from soluble oligomers (SEC-resolvable) to submi­ cron particles and micro-scale flocs (DLS-resolvable)”

An apparent increase in β-sheet may reflect intermolecular β-sheet formation during aggregation rather than a simple change in intramolecular secondary structure.

“Therefore, an apparent increase in β -sheet may reflect intermolecular β -sheet forma­ tion during aggregation rather than a simple change in intramolecular secondary structure.”

pH-shift combined with heat or ultrasound, high-pressure homogenization, and ultrasound-assisted enzymatic routes commonly reduce the mean particle size to 0.15-0.5 μm and narrow the size distribution.

“However, pH-shift combined with heat or ultrasound, high-pressure homogenization, and ultrasound-assisted enzymatic routes commonly reduce the mean particle size to 0.15-0.5 μ m and narrow the size distribution”

• cites Yan & Zhu, 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yang et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao et al., 2023b sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Globulin-rich and more aggregated isolates are more suited to particle- or network-based stabilization systems, such as Pickering emulsions, HIPEs and emulsion gels, especially after pH-shift, heating, or shear structuring.

“By contrast, globulin-rich and more aggregated isolates are more suited to particle- or network-based sta­ bilization systems, such as Pickering emulsions, high-internal-phase emulsions (HIPEs) and emulsion gels, especially after pH-shift, heat­ ing, or shear structuring”

• cites Yan & Zhu, 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The main gap is not the absence of information on solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, or digestibility, but the lack of an integrated comparative synthesis that connects these reported properties to protein fraction composition, processing-induced colloidal states, and stabilization mechanisms across the three pseudocereals.

“Therefore, the main gap is not the absence of information on solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, or digestibility, but the lack of an integrated comparative synthesis that connects these reported properties to protein fraction composition, processing-induced colloidal states, and stabilization mechanisms across the three pseudocereals.”

Under neutral to moderate alkaline extraction, SEC profiles typically show a prominent 11S peak together with smaller species.

“Under neutral to moderate alkaline extraction, SEC profiles typically show a prominent 11S peak together with smaller species.”

Intermolecular β-sheet enrichment is the structural state most consistent with irreversible aggregation, particle formation, and β-rich network development under harsh processing.

“Mechanistically, this distinction plays an important role because intermolecular β -sheet enrichment is the structural state most consistent with irreversible aggregation, particle formation, and β -rich ( β -sheet plus β -turn) network development under harsh process­ ing”

• cites Mir et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Buckwheat shows comparable lysine levels of approximately 5.0-7.0 g/100 g protein.

“Buckwheat shows comparable lysine levels of approximately 5.0-7.0 g/100 g protein”

• cites Rao & Poonia, 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Zhang et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Flour extracts often display slightly higher random coil contributions consistent with a larger albumin-rich fraction and greater heterogeneity.

“Flour extracts often display slightly higher random coil contributions consis­ tent with a larger albumin-rich fraction and greater heterogeneity”

• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

In buckwheat, phenolics, notably rutin/quercetin in Tartary buckwheat, can associate covalently or non-covalently with storage proteins (2S/13S), altering conformation and antioxidant behavior.

“In buckwheat, phenolics (notably rutin/quercetin in Tartary buckwheat) can associate covalently or non-covalently with storage proteins (2S/13S), altering conformation and antioxidant behavior.”

• cites Li et al., 2023bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Li et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wu et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

These extraction-dependent changes suggest that phytate and minerals should be considered when interpreting digestibility, gelation, and aggregation behavior, especially in systems where calcium, magnesium, or other ions participate in network formation.

“These extraction-dependent changes suggest that phytate and minerals should be considered when interpreting digestibility, gelation, and aggregation behavior, especially in systems where calcium, magnesium, or other ions participate in network formation”

• cites Fu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Manzanilla-Valdez et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Marinacci et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Under comparable conditions, quinoa typically shows higher emulsifying capacity at pH 7 than amaranth.

“Under comparable conditions, quinoa typically shows higher emulsi­ fying capacity at pH 7 than amaranth.”

Common buckwheat often shows low emulsifying activity index and larger initial droplets, consistent with differences in aggregate size and interfacial adsorption.

“Common buckwheat often shows low emulsifying activity index and larger initial droplets, which is consistent with the differences in aggregate size and interfacial adsorption (Yan & Zhu, 2025).”

• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Processing does not simply improve functionality, but can shift the dominant stabilization regime between molecular adsorption and particle/network mechanics, depending on the extent of unfolding, aggregation, and reassembly.

“Overall, processing does not simply improve functionality, but can shift the dominant stabilization regime between molecular adsorption and par­ ticle/network mechanics, depending on the extent of unfolding, aggre­ gation, and reassembly”

• cites Mir et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Direct evidence linking naturally retained pseudocereal polysaccharides to protein interfacial-film formation remains limited.

“However, direct ev­ idence linking naturally retained pseudocereal polysaccharides to pro­ tein interfacial-film formation remains limited.”

These components may influence apparent protein functionality indirectly by changing viscosity, hydration, depletion interactions, aggregation, and phase separation.

“These components may influ­ ence apparent protein functionality indirectly by changing viscosity, hydration, depletion interactions, aggregation, and phase separation”

• cites Cortez-Trejo et al., 2022, 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hua et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Phytate and mineral-associated components mainly affect bulk properties, nutritional quality, and digestibility rather than directly acting as interfacial film formers.

“Phytate and mineral-associated components mainly affect bulk properties, nutritional quality, and digestibility rather than directly acting as interfacial film formers.”

Co-components can affect protein functionality through at least four pathways, including non-covalent association, covalent conjugation, interfacial competition, and bulk-network modification.

“Mechanistically, they can affect protein functionality through at least four pathways, including non-covalent association, covalent conjugation, interfacial competition, and bulk-network modification”

• cites Li et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Chen et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cortez-Trejo et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Mild routes such as organic-acid precipitation and moderate high-pressure homogenization or ultrasound often preserve the β-barrel core while increasing random coil content and exposing hydrophobic clusters.

“By contrast, mild routes such as organic-acid precipitation and moderate high-pressure homogenization or ultrasound often preserve the β -barrel core while increasing random coil content and exposing hydrophobic clusters.”

After fraction recovery, extraction conditions and post-extraction processing further determine the structural and colloidal state of pseudocereal proteins.

“After fraction recovery, extraction conditions and post-extraction processing further determine the structural and colloidal state of pseu­ docereal proteins.”

pH-shift combined with ultrasound improves emulsification mainly when it converts loose flocs into submicron dispersions and increases the magnitude of ζ-potential without re-aggregation.

“pH-shift combined with ultrasound improves emulsification mainly when it converts loose flocs into submicron dispersions and in­ creases the magnitude of ζ -potential without re-aggregation.”

Cold plasma treatment shows that pH-dependent structural modification can alter quinoa protein solubility, emulsifying properties, foaming behavior, and secondary structure.

“while cold plasma treatment shows that pH-dependent struc­ tural modification can alter quinoa protein solubility, emulsifying properties, foaming behavior, and secondary structure”

• cites Yousefi et al., 2026 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

pH-shift combined with ultrasound can further increase apparent solubility by breaking micron flocs into submicron dispersions and increasing charge magnitude.

“pH-shift combined with ultrasound can further increase apparent solubility by breaking micron flocs into submicron dispersions and increasing charge magnitude”

• cites Figueroa-González et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Pulsed electric field treatment has been reported as a non-thermal strategy for tailoring quinoa protein structure and functionality.

“Pulsed electric field treatment has been reported as a non-thermal strategy for tailoring quinoa protein structure and func­ tionality”

• cites Farahmand et al., 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Native quinoa proteins typically contain 15-20% α-helices and 35-45% β-sheets, with the 40% remainder as β-turns and random coils.

“Native quinoa proteins typically contain 15-20% α -helices and 35-45% β -sheets, with the 40% remainder as β -turns and random coils”

• cites Zhao et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Overall, co-components can shift pseudocereal proteins between interfacial and bulk-structuring regimes.

“Overall, co-components can shift pseudocereal proteins between interfacial and bulk-structuring regimes.”

• cites Tang et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Li et al., 2023aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Cortez-Trejo et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Functional attribution remains difficult because interfacial adsorption kinetics and interfacial rheology are rarely measured.

“Functional attribution remains diffi­ cult because interfacial adsorption kinetics and interfacial rheology are rarely measured.”

The role of endogenous polysaccharides in pseudocereal protein ingredients is less directly resolved than phenolics, saponins, and phytate.

“Compared with phenolics, saponins, and phytate, the role of endogenous polysaccharides in pseudocereal protein ingredients is less directly resolved.”

Apparent differences in albumin/globulin ratios, β-sheet content, particle size, or hydrophobicity should not be interpreted as fixed crop-specific constants.

“Therefore, apparent differences in albumin/globulin ratios, β -sheet content, particle size, or hydrophobicity should not be interpreted as fixed crop-specific constants.”

Co-components in amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein ingredients should be considered as active structural modifiers rather than passive impurities.

“Co-components in amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein in­ gredients should be considered as active structural modifiers rather than passive impurities.”

• cites Tang et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Dakhili et al., 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Direct experimental evidence for protein-saponin interfacial competition in pseudocereal protein emulsions remains limited.

“However, direct experi­ mental evidence for protein-saponin interfacial competition in pseudocereal protein emulsions remains limited”

In buckwheat, increasing extraction pH and sonication typically reduce ordered fractions (α-helix, β-turn) while increasing disorder, consistent with partial unfolding and altered accessibility.

“In buckwheat, increasing extraction pH and sonication typically reduce ordered frac­ tions ( α -helix, β -turn) while increasing disorder, consistent with partial unfolding and altered accessibility.”

This balance between stable globulin tertiary packing and processing-induced conformational lability helps explain why the same protein source can shift between molecular emulsification, particle-assisted stabilization, and gel/network formation under different processing conditions.

“This balance between stable globulin tertiary packing and processing-induced conformational lability helps explain why the same protein source can shift between molecular emulsification, particle-assisted stabilization, and gel/network formation under different processing conditions.”

Subsequent treatments modulate molecular-mass distribution, particle size, surface charge and conformational exposure in specific ways.

“Subsequent treatments then modulate molecular-mass distribution, particle size, surface charge and conformational exposure in specific ways.”

Adjusting extraction pH to 9-11 is reported as a practical compromise between recovery and interfacial performance for amaranth.

“Adjusting extraction pH to 9-11 is reported as a practical compromise between recovery and interfacial performance (Das et al., 2024).”

• cites Das et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Buckwheat protein microgels can cooperate with polysaccharide nanofibers to generate highly viscoelastic emulsion gels at relatively low oil fractions.

“Structured emulsion gels further illustrate this shift in mechanism, that buckwheat protein microgels can cooperate with polysaccharide nanofibers to generate highly visco­ elastic emulsion gels at relatively low oil fractions (Wang et al., 2025b).”

• cites Wang et al., 2025bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

High-moisture extrusion promotes aggregation and more rigid β-associated structures that co-evolve with texture and digestibility.

“In contrast, high-moisture extrusion promotes aggregation and more rigid β -associated structures that co-evolve with texture and digestibility”

• cites Jin et al., 2021 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Wu et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang et al., 2024cNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Many studies do not distinguish free, non-covalently bound, and protein-bound phenolics, making total phenolic content an imprecise descriptor for structure-function comparison.

“Many studies do not distinguish free, non-covalently bound, and protein-bound phenolics, making total phenolic content an imprecise descriptor for structure-function comparison.”

Apparent contradictions across studies often reflect different structural states rather than true disagreement about crop functionality.

“The significance of this finding is that apparent contradictions across studies often reflect different structural states rather than true disagreement about crop functionality.”

Higher extraction pH, from 9 to 11, and thermal treatments tend to increase void-volume aggregates and β-associated aggregation.

“Higher extraction pH, from 9 to 11, and thermal treatments tend to increase void-volume aggregates and β -associated aggregation.”

• cites Chang et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Cui et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Liu et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

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Quinoa proteins are particularly amenable to designed structural states.

“Quinoa proteins are particularly amenable to designed structural states.”

Amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins should not be interpreted as fixed crop-specific ingredients, but as processing-dependent protein systems.

“Taken together, the composition and structural evidence show that amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins should not be interpreted as fixed crop-specific ingredients, but as processing-dependent protein systems.”

The same co-components can be beneficial or detrimental depending on concentration and formulation conditions.

“The same co-components can therefore be beneficial or detrimental depending on concentration and formulation conditions.”

Overall, amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa proteins can be viewed as β-barrel globulins.

“Overall, amaranth, buck­ wheat and quinoa proteins can be viewed as β -barrel globulins.”

In Tartary buckwheat, phenolic association and co-extraction can further depress apparent solubility by promoting protein-phenolic complexes and aggregation.

“In Tartary buckwheat, phenolic association and co-extraction can further depress apparent solubility by promoting protein-phenolic complexes and aggregation”

• cites Wu et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

When proteins exist as large aggregates or phenolic-associated complexes, reduced particle size alone may not improve emulsification.

“However, when proteins exist as large aggregates or phenolic-associated complexes, reduced particle size alone may not improve emulsification (Li et al., 2024b).”

• cites Li et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

For amaranth, optimized extraction pH can shift the balance between swollen globulin aggregates and more soluble albumin-rich species.

“For amaranth, optimized extraction pH can shift the balance between swollen globulin aggregates and more soluble albumin-rich species.”

• cites Das et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Submicron particles and microgels mainly stabilize Pickering emulsions, HIPEs, and emulsion gels through interfacial jamming and steric barriers.

“Submicron particles and microgels mainly stabilize Pickering emulsions, HIPEs, and emulsion gels through inter­ facial jamming and steric barriers.”

Water extraction system should be interpreted as a protein-rich extract and mixed biopolymer network rather than as a purified protein isolate, because water extraction may retain albumins, minerals, carbohydrates, and other co-components that influence gelation behavior.

“this system should be interpreted as a protein-rich extract and mixed biopolymer network rather than as a purified protein isolate, because water extraction may retain albumins, minerals, carbohydrates, and other co-components that influence gelation behavior (Hua et al., 2024).”

• cites Hua et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Foaming commonly deteriorates near the isoelectric region (often around pH 4.5-5.0), where charge screening and aggregation slow adsorption.

“As a result, foaming commonly deteriorates near the isoelectric region (often around pH 4.5-5.0), where charge screening and aggregation slow adsorption.”

Physical structuring methods can convert mild or conventional protein ingredients into functional colloidal systems.

“Physical structuring methods can further convert mild or conventional protein ingredients into functional colloidal systems.”

Controlled aggregation can generate submicron particles or microgels suitable for Pickering-type stabilization.

“Controlled aggregation can generate submicron particles or microgels suitable for Pickering-type stabilization”

• cites Song et al. (2023) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao et al. (2023b) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Yan and Zhu (2026) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A single descriptor cannot be used for prediction without recording its preparation history.

“indicating that a single descriptor cannot be used for prediction without recording its prepara­ tion history (Liu et al., 2023).”

• cites Liu et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

Covalent and non-covalent dual decoration of quinoa protein with dietary phenolics generates measurably different conformational states and oxidative-protection performance in delivery emulsions.

“Quinoa shows the same principle in a controllable way that covalent and non­ covalent dual decoration with dietary phenolics generates measurably different conformational states and oxidative-protection performance in delivery emulsions (Chen et al., 2024b).”

• cites Chen et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Gelation of amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins can be viewed as a process-dependent network assembly rather than as a single fixed functionality.

“Gelation of amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins can be viewed as a process-dependent network assembly rather than as a single fixed functionality.”

Droplets, protein particles, polysaccharides, or fibrils can reinforce bulk-network formation.

“Droplets, protein particles, polysaccharides, or fibrils can reinforce bulk-network formation”

• cites Wang et al. (2025b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhao et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao et al. (2025) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Common buckwheat is more often discussed in relation to its large particle size and robust gel network formation.

“Common buckwheat, by contrast, is more often discussed in relation to its large particle size and robust gel network formation (Lin et al., 2025; Yan & Zhu, 2026; Zou et al., 2023).”

• cites Lin et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Yan & Zhu, 2026 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zou et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Functional and application-level datasets for amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins remain difficult to compare because solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, emulsion stability, and digestion are strongly determined by measurement and formulation conditions.

“Functional and application-level datasets for amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins remain difficult to compare because solubility, emulsification, foaming, gelation, emulsion stability, and digestion are all strongly determined by measurement and formulation conditions (Graziano et al., 2022).”

• cites Graziano et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Buckwheat protein colloidal particles show formulation-dependent behavior, where particle concentration, ionic strength, heat treatment, contact angle, and interfacial adsorption jointly affected Pickering emulsion stability.

“Buckwheat protein colloidal particles also show formulation-dependent behavior, where particle concentration, ionic strength, heat treatment, contact angle, and interfacial adsorption jointly affected Pickering emulsion stability (Song et al., 2023).”

• cites Song et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Foaming of pseudocereal proteins depends on whipping or aeration conditions and bubble-size distribution.

“Foaming depends on whipping or aeration conditions and bubble-size distribu­ tion”

• cites Qu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tian et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Xu et al., 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The role of ML in this field is likely to be data organization and hypothesis generation rather than definitive prediction.

“Therefore, the role of ML in this field is likely to be data orga­ nization and hypothesis generation rather than definitive prediction (Hickman et al., 2022; Cao et al., 2021).”

• cites Hickman et al., 2022 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Cao et al., 2021 sourceNot checked yet

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Moist-heat glycation of Tartary buckwheat protein with glucose at 60 °C under varying protein-to-glucose ratios produces protein-glucose conjugates with improved interfacial functionality, including higher solubility and emulsifying activity.

“Moist-heat glycation of Tartary buckwheat protein with glucose, reported at 60 ◦ C under varying protein-to-glucose ratios, produces protein-glucose conjugates with improved interfacial functionality, including higher solubility and emulsifying activity.”

• cites Santos-S ´ anchez et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Controlled aggregation, unfolding, and junction formation are often associated with higher storage modulus, stronger holding capacity.

“Controlled aggregation, unfolding, and junction formation are often associated with higher storage modulus, stronger”

• cites Liu et al. (2023) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Marinacci et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Hua et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Nutritional, functional, and thermal differences are reported even under nominally similar isolation processes.

“Nutritional, functional, and thermal differences are reported even under nominally similar isolation processes.”

Legumes and some oat protein systems provide a more relevant comparison for pseudocereal protein structure-function because they also contain substantial 7S/11S globulins and albumins.

“from a structure-function perspective, legumes and some oat protein systems provide a more relevant comparison because they also contain substantial 7S/11S globulins and albumins (Rashwan et al., 2025; Zhang et al., 2024a).”

• cites Rashwan et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Zhang et al., 2024aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Emulsification of pseudocereal proteins depends on homogenization energy, oil type, phase ratio, protein concentration, and droplet-size distribution.

“Emulsifi­ cation depends on homogenization energy, oil type, phase ratio, protein concentration, and droplet-size distribution (Qu et al., 2025).”

• cites Qu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Solubility of pseudocereal proteins depends on how the soluble fraction is operationally defined.

“For instance, solubility depends on how the soluble fraction is operationally defined (Zhang et al., 2023).”

• cites Zhang et al., 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Across proteins, quinoa is generally the most adjustable because multiple modifications (pH-shift, homogenization, thermal pretreatment) can steer its aggregation without fully destroying interfacial mobility.

“Across proteins, quinoa is generally the most adjustable because multiple modifications (pH-shift, homogenization, thermal pretreatment) can steer its aggregation without fully destroying inter­ facial mobility (Chang et al., 2025; Wang et al., 2025a).”

• cites Chang et al., 2025 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Wang et al., 2025aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Water extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and homogenization show that extraction route affects yield, purity, co-component retention, particle state, and functionality.

“Water extraction, ultrasound- assisted extraction, and homogenization show that extraction route affects yield, purity, co-component retention, particle state, and”

• cites Hua et al. (2024) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Luo et al. (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Liu et al. (2023) sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

The functionalities of amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins cannot be predicted from crop identity alone.

“Amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins share a globulin-albumin structural foundation, but their functionalities cannot be predicted from crop identity alone.”

Reported data differ substantially in extraction route, pH trajectory, protein purity, fraction composition, co-component retention, processing intensity, and analytical endpoints, which makes direct pooling of values unreliable.

“Reported data differ substantially in extraction route, pH tra­ jectory, protein purity, fraction composition, co-component retention, processing intensity, and analytical endpoints, which makes direct pooling of values unreliable (Liu et al., 2023; Luo et al., 2022; Yan & Zhu, 2025).”

• cites Liu et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

  Checked before — its earlier verdict is held back until a new check runs.

• cites Luo et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Ingredient provenance and extraction history variables directly affect aggregation, ζ-potential and interfacial behavior, which underpin emulsion stability.

“These variables directly affect aggregation, ζ -potential and interfacial behavior, which underpin emulsion stability (Graziano et al., 2022; Sultan et al., 2024).”

• cites Graziano et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sultan et al., 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Phenolics, saponins, and polysaccharides can alter charge, hydrophobicity, oxidation stability, and network formation.

“Phenolics, saponins, and polysaccharides can alter charge, hydrophobicity, oxidation stability, and network formation”

• cites Li et al. (2023a)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Li et al. (2023b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Li et al. (2024b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Moderate unfolding and reduced aggregation are often associated with higher solubility and better interfacial adsorption.

“Moderate unfolding and reduced aggregation are often associated with higher solubility and better interfacial adsorption”

• cites Das et al. (2021)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Luo et al. (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Zhao et al. (2023b) sourceNot checked yet

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Pseudocereal proteins are often accompanied by crop-specific co-components, such as rutin-rich phenolics in buckwheat, saponins in quinoa, and phytate/mineral-associated fractions, which can modify charge, aggregation, interfacial behavior, and digestion.

“pseudocereal proteins are often accompanied by crop-specific co-components, such as rutin-rich phenolics in buckwheat, saponins in quinoa, and phytate/mineral-associated fractions, which can modify charge, aggregation, interfacial behavior, and digestion (Li et al., 2023b; Marinacci et al., 2026; Qu et al., 2025).”

• cites Li et al., 2023bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Marinacci et al., 2026 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Qu et al., 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Sample preparation itself can bias which proteoforms are observed.

“Sample preparation itself can bias which pro­ teoforms are observed”

Pickering systems are highly sensitive to small changes in particle size, wettability and electrolyte screening.

“pickering systems are highly sensitive to small changes in particle size, wettability and electrolyte screening (Chang et al., 2023; Kirtil & Yildiz, 2025; Tian et al., 2024).”

• cites Chang et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Kirtil & Yildiz, 2025 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Tian et al., 2024 sourceNot checked yet

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Protein emulsions and emulsion gels can protect and deliver curcumin, naringenin, or other hydrophobic compounds.

“Protein emulsions and emulsion gels can protect and deliver curcumin, naringenin, or other hydrophobic compounds”

• cites Zhao et al. (2025) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Chen et al. (2023a, 2024b)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Processing history is not a nuisance variable but a mechanistic driver of functionality.

“A proteoform perspective also clarifies why processing history is not a nuisance variable but a mechanistic driver of function­ ality.”

Gastrointestinal digestibility decreases as the degree of glycation increases.

“gastrointestinal digestibility decreases as the degree of glycation increases (Santos-S ´ anchez et al., 2024; Zhang et al., 2024b).”

• cites Santos-S ´ anchez et al., 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Zhang et al., 2024bNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins share a globulin-albumin structural foundation.

“Amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa proteins share a globulin-albumin structural foundation, but their functionalities cannot be predicted from crop identity alone.”

Different in vitro protocols can invert conclusions about improved digestibility after the same processing.

“different in vitro protocols can invert conclusions about improved digestibility after the same processing.”

Protein-phenolic co-extraction and association can shift solubility, aggregation and in vitro digestion, an effect explicitly treated as extraction-pH dependent in Tartary buckwheat protein isolates.

“various genotypes of protein-phenolic co-extraction and association can shift solubility, ag­ gregation and in vitro digestion, which is an effect explicitly treated as extraction-pH dependent in Tartary buckwheat protein isolates (Wu et al., 2021).”

• cites Wu et al., 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Extraction is not a neutral preparative step, but a structuring process that determines the downstream functional and nutritional potential of the protein ingredient.

“This example illustrates that extraction is not a neutral preparative step, but a structuring process that de­ termines the downstream functional and nutritional potential of the protein ingredient.”

Genotypic effects on pseudocereal proteins can be comparable in magnitude to processing effects.

“even though genotypic effects can be comparable in magnitude to processing effects.”

For quinoa, genotype comparisons are more directly documented in protein datasets, for example in studies comparing red and white quinoa protein isolates.

“For quinoa, genotype comparisons are more directly documented in protein datasets, for example in studies comparing red and white quinoa protein isolates.”

In pH-shift and ultrasound-treated quinoa protein dispersions, changes in particle size, surface hydrophobicity, secondary structure, solubility, foaming, and emulsifying properties depend strongly on the pH-shift and the additional physical treatment applied.

“Similar modifications are observed in pH-shift and ultrasound-treated quinoa protein dispersions, where changes in particle size, surface hydrophobicity, secondary structure, solubility, foaming, and emulsifying properties depend strongly on the pH-shift and the additional physical treatment applied (Wang et al., 2025a).”

• cites Wang et al., 2025aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Lack of harmonized datasets for ML across amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein studies is the main limitation, not absence of modelling algorithms.

“At present, the main limita­ tion is not the absence of modelling algorithms, but the lack of harmo­ nized datasets for ML across amaranth, buckwheat, and quinoa protein studies.”

• cites Liu et al., 2023 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Luo et al., 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yan & Zhu, 2025Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Extraction history, pH-shifting, ionic conditions, defatting, drying, and co-extracted components strongly reshape pseudocereal protein fraction recovery, aggregation state, charge, hydrophobic exposure, and interfacial behavior.

“The reviewed evidence shows that extraction his­ tory, pH-shifting, ionic conditions, defatting, drying, and co-extracted components strongly reshape protein fraction recovery, aggregation state, charge, hydrophobic exposure, and interfacial behavior.”

Moderate unfolding and aggregate disassembly can improve dispersibility, molecular adsorption, emulsification, and foaming of pseudocereal proteins.

“Across the literature, a recurring conclusion is that moderate unfolding and aggregate disassembly can improve dispersibility, molecular adsorption, emulsification, and foaming,”

Strong thermal, alkaline, covalent, or enzymatic treatments tend to favor β-sheet-rich aggregates, microgels, fibrils, and composite networks that are suitable for gel, Pickering, high-internal-phase emulsion, and emulsion-gel systems.

“whereas strong thermal, alkaline, covalent, or enzymatic treatments tend to favor β -sheet-rich aggregates, microgels, fibrils, and composite networks that are suitable for gel, Pickering, high-internalphase emulsions, and emulsion-gel systems.”

Phenolics, saponins, phytate, minerals, and polysaccharides act as active modifiers of pseudocereal protein functionality rather than as passive impurities.

“Pheno­ lics, saponins, phytate, minerals, and polysaccharides should therefore be interpreted as active modifiers of pseudocereal protein functionality rather than as passive impurities.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Co-extracted components such as phenolics, saponins, phytate, minerals, and polysaccharides are retained in pseudocereal protein preparations and remain functionally active in them.