The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics

Kashdan, Todd B.; Gallagher, Matthew W.; Silvia, Paul J.; Winterstein, Beate P.; Breen, William E.; Terhar, Daniel; Steger, Michael F.

doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.011

Cited by 674Psychological and Educational Research StudiesPsychometric Methodologies and TestingPersonality Traits and Psychology

The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics

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Kashdan, Todd B., Gallagher, Matthew W., Silvia, Paul J., Winterstein, Beate P., Breen, William E., Terhar, Daniel, Steger, Michael F.·2009·Journal of Research in Personality

DOI 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.011PMC PMC2770180

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Abstract

Given curiosity's fundamental role in motivation, learning, and well-being, we sought to refine the measurement of trait curiosity with an improved version of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI; Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004). A preliminary pool of 36 items was administered to 311 undergraduate students, who also completed measures of emotion, emotion regulation, personality, and well-being. Factor analyses indicated a two factor model-motivation to seek out knowledge and new experiences (Stretching; 5 items) and a willingness to embrace the novel, uncertain, and unpredictable nature of everyday life (Embracing; 5 items). In two additional samples (ns = 150 and 119), we cross-validated this factor structure and provided initial evidence for construct validity. This includes positive correlations with personal growth, openness to experience, autonomy, purpose in life, self-acceptance, psychological flexibility, positive affect, and positive social relations, among others. Applying item response theory (IRT) to these samples (n = 578), we showed that the items have good discrimination and a desirable breadth of difficulty. The item information functions and test information function were centered near zero, indicating that the scale assesses the mid-range of the latent curiosity trait most reliably. The findings thus far provide good evidence for the psychometric properties of the 10-item CEI-II.

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Self-citation
Curiosity and well-being
Gallagher, M., & Lopez, S. J. (2007) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760701552345 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Self-citation
Curiosity and Exploratory Behavior
Spielberger, C. D., & Starr, L. M. (2012) · doi:10.4324/9780203052686-18 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Interest and Learning.
Ohles, J. F. (1969) · Educ · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Whether highly curious students thrive academically depends on perceptions about the school learning environment: A study of Hong Kong adolescents
Kashdan, T. B., & Yuen, M. (2007) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9074-9 · Cited by 101 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Often, specific curiosity and motivated actions originate with a mixture of pleasant and unpleasant feelings (Berlyne , 1967; Leherissey, 1971).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The factor structure of curiosity measures: Breadth and depth of interest curiosity styles
Ainley, M. (1987) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049538708259035 · Cited by 98 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…of trait curiosity use either general self-report statements (e.g., ''I am curious about things " ; Naylor, 1981) or lists of specific activities (e.g., ''Finding out how a carburetor on a car works " ; Pearson, 1970; ''Walking into an old deserted house at midnight " ; Ainley, 1987, 1998).”
Background
Critical review of state-trait curiosity test development
Boyle, G. J. (1983) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf00991647 · Cited by 81 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Studying trait-like curiosity requires trustworthy tools for measuring curiosity, but the history of curiosity assessment is checkered at best (Boyle, 1983; Litman & Silvia, 2006; Silvia, 2006, chap.”
Response to Novelty: Continuity Versus Discontinuity in the Developmental Course of Intelligence
Berg, C. A., & Sternberg, R. J. (1985) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(08)60387-0 · Cited by 78 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Implicit in this understanding of curiosity is that people must feel they have the ability to effectively cope with or make sense of the novelty, ambiguity and uncertainty being confronted during explorations (Berg & Sternberg, 1985; Silvia, 2008; Spielberger & Starr, 1994).”
Background
Basic and Advanced Measurement Models for Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Williams, L. J., Ford, L. R., & Nguyen, N. T. H. (2004) · doi:10.1002/9780470756669.ch18 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Global dual‐career exploration and the role of hope and curiosity during the process
Harvey, M. G., Novičević, M. M., & Breland, J. W. (2009) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683940910928874 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style
Garner, B. A. (2000) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acref/9780195135084.001.0001 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Effects of Stimulating State Epistemic Curiosity on State Anxiety and Performance in a Complex Computer-Assisted Learning Task
Leherissey, B. L. (1973) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e465522008-251 · Cited by 18 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Often, specific curiosity and motivated actions originate with a mixture of pleasant and unpleasant feelings (Berlyne, 1967; Leherissey, 1971).”
Background
Seeking Systems and Anticipatory States of the Nervous System
Panksepp, J. (1998) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780195096736.003.0008 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Healthy subjects volunteering for Phase I studies: Influence of curiosity, exploratory tendencies and perceived self-efficacy
Almeida, L., Kashdan, T. B., Coelho, R. C., Albino‐Teixeira, A., & Soares-da-Silva, P. (2008) · International Journal of Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.5414/cpp46109 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Oxford Dictionary of American Usage and Style
Garner, B. A. (2000) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Explorations in curiosity : breadth and depth of interest curiosity styles
Ainley, M. (1986) · Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) · Cited by 9 · see citing works

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Sorted by citations

Into the unknown: A review and synthesis of contemporary models involving uncertainty
Carleton, R. N. (2016) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.02.007 · Cited by 1,104 · see citing works
The five-dimensional curiosity scale: Capturing the bandwidth of curiosity and identifying four unique subgroups of curious people
Kashdan, T. B., Stiksma, M. C., Disabato, D. J., McKnight, P. E., Bekier, J., Kaji, J., & Lazarus, R. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.11.011 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
“…psychometric properties of measures such as the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II - the embracing of stress in novel and challenging situations subscale had smaller correlations with distress and healthy emotion regulation strategies than the stretching subscale; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Different types of well-being? A cross-cultural examination of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being
Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., Short, J. L., & Jarden, A. (2016) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000209 · Cited by 583 · see citing works
“Despite the popularity of the hedonia–eudaimonia distinction within the well-being literature, there is skepticism about its empirical support and theoretical utility (Coyne, 2013; Kashdan et al., 2008, Kashdan et al., 2009; Sheldon, 2013).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Light vs. Dark Triad of Personality: Contrasting Two Very Different Profiles of Human Nature
Kaufman, S., Yaden, D., Hyde, E., & Tsukayama, E. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00467 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
To Nostalgize
Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., Routledge, C., Arndt, J., Hepper, E. G., & Zhou, X. (2015) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2014.10.001 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
“…ordinary) event condition reported greater growth-related self-perceptions (i.e., self-expansion, curiosity, inclination toward new experiences; Kashdan et al., 2009) and stronger growth-related behavioral intentions (i.e., to engage in novel, self-expansive activities; Luke, Sedikides, &…”
Background
Disentangling Curiosity: Dimensionality, Definitions, and Distinctions from Interest in Educational Contexts
Grossnickle, E. M. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9294-y · Cited by 318 · see citing works
“In a few definitions, the need for knowledge or information was described as not just an identification of the gap, but also a propensity toward seeking such gaps (Kashdan et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the US Veteran Population
Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P., Wolf, E. J., Miller, M. W., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.14m09328 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Process Account of Curiosity and Interest: A Reward-Learning Perspective
Murayama, K., FitzGibbon, L., & Sakaki, M. (2019) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09499-9 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
“As indicated in our paper, there are a number of trait-level scales that aimed to understand the individual differences in different aspects of curiosity and interest (Kashdan et al. 2009; Litman 2008).”
Background
Understanding the need for novelty from the perspective of self-determination theory
González-Cutre, D., Sicilia, Á., Sierra, A. C., Ferriz, R., & Hagger, M. S. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.06.036 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Metacognitive model of mindfulness
Jankowski, T., & Holas, P. (2014) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2014.06.005 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
“Both researchers studying mindfulness and psychologists exploring curiosity associate these two phenomena (Bishop et al., 2004; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Background
Digital-only banking experience: Insights from gen Y and gen Z
Windasari, N. A., Kusumawati, N., Larasati, N. A., & Amelia, R. P. (2022) · Journal of Innovation & Knowledge · doi:10.1016/j.jik.2022.100170 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Whether, how, and when social anxiety shapes positive experiences and events: A self-regulatory framework and treatment implications
Kashdan, T. B., Weeks, J. W., & Savostyanova, A. A. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.012 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Self-citation
Links between intellectual humility and acquiring knowledge
Krumrei-Mancuso, E. J., Haggard, M. C., LaBouff, J. P., & Rowatt, W. C. (2020) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2019.1579359 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
“The Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009) was used to assess trait”
Method
Response to a mindful self‐compassion intervention in teens: A within‐person association of mindfulness, self‐compassion, and emotional well‐being outcomes
Bluth, K., & Eisenlohr-Moul, T. A. (2017) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.04.001 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Is grit relevant to well‐being and strengths? Evidence across the globe for separating perseverance of effort and consistency of interests
Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., & Kashdan, T. B. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12382 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Self-citation
Did Curiosity Kill the Cat? Relationship Between Trait Curiosity, Creative Self-Efficacy and Creative Personal Identity
Karwowski, M. (2012) · Europe’s Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5964/ejop.v8i4.513 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
“Kashdan and Silvia (2009) defined curiosity as follows: Curiosity can be defined as the recognition, pursuit, and intense desire to explore novel, challenging, and uncertain events.”
Influential
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESILIENCE IN OLDER U.S. VETERANS: RESULTS FROM THE NATIONAL HEALTH AND RESILIENCE IN VETERANS STUDY: Research Article: Resilience in Older Veterans
Pietrzak, R. H., & Cook, J. M. (2013) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22083 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
“Score on single-item measure of curiosity/exploration from Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II;[66] “I frequently find myself looking for new opportunities to grow as a person (e.”
Background
An IRT analysis of motive questionnaires: The Unified Motive Scales
Schönbrodt, F., & Gerstenberg, F. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.010 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“…with strangers than with familiar people”) had a uniqueness of .85 and did not load substantially on any factor, which could point to a distinct curiosity motive beyond the five motives represented by the factor solution (Gubler & Bischof, 1991; Kashdan et al., 2009; Schneider & Schmalt, 2000).”
Background
Let them eat fruit! The effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on psychological well-being in young adults: A randomized controlled trial
Conner, T. S., Brookie, K. L., Carr, A. C., Mainvil, L. A., & Vissers, M. C. M. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0171206 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
The Five-Dimensional Curiosity Scale Revised (5DCR): Briefer subscales while separating overt and covert social curiosity
Kashdan, T. B., Disabato, D. J., Goodman, F. R., & McKnight, P. E. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.109836 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citation
Gaze Transition Entropy
Krejtz, K., Duchowski, A. T., Szmidt, T., Krejtz, I., Perilli, F. G., Pires, A. C., Vilaró, A., & Villalobos, N. (2015) · ACM Transactions on Applied Perception · doi:10.1145/2834121 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“The curiosity score (CEI-II) was tested as a between-subject factor and stimuli as a within-subject factor.”
MethodInfluential
Eye Movements During Everyday Behavior Predict Personality Traits
Hoppe, S., Loetscher, T., Morey, S. A., & Bulling, A. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00105 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
“, 2004); and 3) the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI-II), a 10-item questionnaire assessing trait curiosity (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Background
Self-Compassion: A Potential Path to Adolescent Resilience and Positive Exploration
Bluth, K., Mullarkey, M. C., & Lathren, C. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1125-1 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for total score is .86; the stretching subscale α= .80 and embracing subscale α= .79 (Kashdan et al. 2009).”
BackgroundInfluential
From entrepreneurial passion to entrepreneurial intentions: The role of entrepreneurial passion, innovativeness, and curiosity in driving entrepreneurial intentions
Syed, I., Butler, J. C., Smith, R. M., & Cao, X. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109758 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Contributing high quantity and quality knowledge to online Q & A communities
Lou, J., Fang, Y., Lim, K. H., & Peng, J. Z. (2012) · Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.22750 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
On carrots and curiosity: Eating fruit and vegetables is associated with greater flourishing in daily life
Conner, T. S., Brookie, K. L., Richardson, A. C., & Polak, M. (2014) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12113 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Introducing the construct curiosity for predicting job performance
Mussel, P. (2012) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.1809 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“Furthermore, epistemic curiosity is uncorrelated with anger and depression and uncorrelated or slightly negatively correlated with anxiety (Kashdan et al., 2009; Litman & Spielberger, 2003; Litman & Jimerson, 2004; Litman & Pezzo, 2007).”
Background
Allying with AI? Reactions toward human-based, AI/ML-based, and augmented hiring processes
Gonzalez, M. F., Liu, W., Shirase, L., Tomczak, D. L., Lobbe, C. E., Justenhoven, R. T., & Martin, N. R. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107179 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
How Serendipity Improves User Satisfaction with Recommendations? A Large-Scale User Evaluation
Chen, L., Yang, Y., Wang, N., Yang, K., & Yuan, Q. (2019) · International World Wide Web Conference (WWW) · doi:10.1145/3308558.3313469 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Thus, in our survey, we asked the participants to respond to a popular curiosity instrument, Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) [16] (an improved version of the original Curiosity and Exploration Inventory (CEI) [17]), because it was proven capable of assessing individual differences…”
BackgroundMethod
Primal world beliefs.
Clifton, J. D. W., Baker, J. D., Park, C. L., Yaden, D. B., Clifton, A. B. W., Terni, P., Miller, J. L., Zeng, G., Giorgi, S., Schwartz, H. A., et al. (2018) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0000639 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Following primals items, 562 participants completed measures of BIG 5 personality traits (44-item BFI; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991); life satisfaction (5-item SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985); depression, anxiety, and stress (21-item DASS-21; Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998); positive emoti…”
Eye movements reveal epistemic curiosity in human observers
Baranès, A., Oudeyer, P., & Gottlieb, J. P. (2015) · Vision Research · doi:10.1016/j.visres.2015.10.009 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
“The second questionnaire was the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory II (Kashdan et al., 2009) which measures curiosity and exploration using 2 dimensions: interest for novelty, challenge and absorption (full engagement in specific activities).”
Method
Contextual Positive Psychology: Policy Recommendations for Implementing Positive Psychology into Schools
Ciarrochi, J., Atkins, P. W. B., Hayes, L. L., Sahdra, B. K., & Parker, P. D. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01561 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“…discoverer skill can be roughly mapped to adaptive expressions of openness to experience (Headey and Wearing, 1989; Davey et al., 2003; Heaven and Ciarrochi, 2012) and curiosity (Kashdan et al., 2009), and low discoverer skill can be mapped to maladaptive forms of sensation seeking (Roberti, 2004).”
Background
Intellect: A theoretical framework for personality traits related to intellectual achievements.
Mussel, P. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031918 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Similar conceptualizations have been made by Kashdan et al. (2009), who proposed a two-factor model, one related to seeking out knowledge and new experiences and the other related to a willingness to manage and embrace the tension that often arises when confronting novelty and uncertainty.”
Background
Curiosity in old age: A possible key to achieving adaptive aging
Sakaki, M., Yagi, A., & Murayama, K. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.007 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Curious eyes: Individual differences in personality predict eye movement behavior in scene-viewing
Risko, E. F., Anderson, N., Lanthier, S. N., & Kingstone, A. F. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.014 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Early childhood curiosity and kindergarten reading and math academic achievement
Shah, P., Weeks, H. M., Richards, B. J., & Kaciroti, N. (2018) · Pediatric Research · doi:10.1038/s41390-018-0039-3 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“While curiosity traits are thought to be highly heritable (20) and include an openness to experiences, desire for novelty, and willingness to embrace the unexpected (21), the expression of curiosity is also thought to be situational (i.”
Background
Looking up at the curious personality: individual differences in curiosity and openness to experience
Silvia, P. J., & Christensen, A. P. (2020) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.05.013 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citation
Connections between curiosity, flow and creativity
Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109555 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Brief assessment of schizotypy: Developing short forms of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales
Winterstein, B. P., Silvia, P. J., Kwapil, T. R., Kaufman, J. C., Reiter‐Palmon, R., & Wigert, B. G. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.07.027 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“…complement the HEXACO, we included several narrow traits, particularly measures of trait curiosity (the revised Curiosity and Exploration Inventory; Kashdan et al., 2009), sensation seeking (a brief scale developed by Hoyle, Stephenson, Palmgreen, Lorch, & Donohew, 2002), and hypomania (the…”
Self-citation
Entropy-based statistical analysis of eye movement transitions
Krejtz, K., Szmidt, T., Duchowski, A. T., & Krejtz, I. (2014) · ACM Symposium on Eye Tracking Research and Applications (ETRA) · doi:10.1145/2578153.2578176 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“The main independent variables were experimental condition (positive vs. neutral mood), curiosity factor based on median split of the CEI-II scores, and subjective attractiveness of the artwork (low vs. high— answers from 1 to 3 were coded as ’low’ and answers from 4 to 5 as ’high’ attractiveness).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Cultivating an understanding of curiosity as a seed for creativity
Gross, M. E., Zedelius, C. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2020) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.07.015 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
“General curiosity was measured using the curiosity and exploration inventory-II [54]; creative self-efficacy was measured using the short scale of creative self (SSCS; Karwowski, [1 ]); and creative imagination was measured using the Imagination index [55].”
Method
Measures of curiosity: A literature review
Wagstaff, M. F., Flores, G. L., Ahmed, R., & Villanueva, S. (2020) · Human Resource Development Quarterly · doi:10.1002/hrdq.21417 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Exploring nostalgia's influence on psychological growth
Baldwin, M., & Landau, M. J. (2014) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2013.772320 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“Second, we included the Exploration Inventory (EI; Green & Campbell, 2000) to assess growth-oriented behavioral intentions.”
Method
From relief to surprise: Dual control of epistemic curiosity in the human brain
Ligneul, R., Mermillod, M., & Morisseau, T. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.07.038 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
“trade-off varies greatly across individuals and recent studies have suggested that tolerance to uncertainty is a key personality trait underlying this variability (Kashdan et al., 2009; Litman, 2010).”
A Meta‐Analysis of the Relationship between Curiosity and Creativity
Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2019) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.421 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Personality and boredom proneness in the prediction of creativity and curiosity
Hunter, J. A., Abraham, E. H., Hunter, A. G., Goldberg, L. C., & Eastwood, J. D. (2016) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2016.08.002 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Psychological resilience in U.S. military veterans: A 2-year, nationally representative prospective cohort study
Isaacs, K. H., Mota, N. P., Tsai, J., Harpaz‐Rotem, I., Cook, J. M., Kirwin, P. D., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.10.017 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“…1994) rating 1=strongly disagree to 7=strongly agree .729 Score on single-item measure of curiosity/exploratin from Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009); “I frequently find myself looking for new opportunities to grow as a person (e.g., information, people, resources”)…”
Background
How Are Curious People Viewed and How Do They Behave in Social Situations? From the Perspectives of Self, Friends, Parents, and Unacquainted Observers
Kashdan, T. B., Sherman, R. A., Yarbro, J., & Funder, D. C. (2012) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00796.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citation
The motivational potency of nostalgia: The future is called yesterday
Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2019) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2019.05.001 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
The role of individual characteristics in shaping digital entrepreneurial intention among university students: Evidence from Saudi Arabia
Elnadi, M., & Gheith, M. H. (2023) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101236 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Personality, Effective Goal-Striving, and Enhanced Well-Being
Sheldon, K. M., Jose, P. E., Kashdan, T. B., & Jarden, A. (2015) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167215573211 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“This research has shown that psychologically healthy and well-adapted individuals are higher in Grit, defined as manifesting goal-perseverance and resilience in the face of adversity (Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007); Gratitude, the disposition and ability to feel appreciative of benefits received (Emmons…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation
Curiosity and Motivation
Silvia, P. J. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0010 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citation
Playful work design: Conceptualization, measurement, and validity
Scharp, Y. S., Bakker, A. B., Breevaart, K., Kruup, K., & Uusberg, A. (2021) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/00187267211070996 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
“Curiosity describes the pursuit, recognition, and desire to explore novel, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous events (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethod
Examining Concurrent and Longitudinal Relations Between Personality Traits and Social Well-being in Adulthood
Hill, P. L., Turiano, N. A., Mroczek, D. K., & Roberts, B. W. (2012) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550611433888 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“Past work has suggested that creative individuals score higher on social contribution (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Within‐person variability in curiosity during daily life and associations with well‐being
Lydon‐Staley, D. M., Zurn, P., & Bassett, D. S. (2020) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12515 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Trait Curiosity was measured using the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory‐II (CEI‐II; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Suicidality among older male veterans in the United States: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study
Fanning, J. R., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2013) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.07.015 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“(1994) Curiosity and exploration “I frequently find myself looking for new opportunities to grow as a person” 1 Kashdan et al. (2009)”
Background
An Exploration of Some Antecedents and Consequences of Creative Self‐Efficacy among College Students
Puente‐Díaz, R., & Cavazos‐Arroyo, J. (2016) · The Journal of Creative Behavior · doi:10.1002/jocb.149 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
How serious is the ‘carelessness’ problem on Mechanical Turk?
Aruguete, M. S., Huynh, H. P., Browne, B. L., Jurs, B. S., Flint, E., & McCutcheon, L. E. (2019) · International Journal of Social Research Methodology · doi:10.1080/13645579.2018.1563966 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“We did something similar on the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
Method
Work curiosity: A new lens for understanding employee creativity
Chang, Y.-Y., & Shih, H.-Y. (2019) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2018.10.005 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Creative Self-Efficacy: The Influence of Affective States and Social Persuasion as Antecedents and Imagination and Divergent Thinking as Consequences
Puente‐Díaz, R., & Cavazos‐Arroyo, J. (2017) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2017.1360067 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“For this investigation, the total trait curiosity score was sued, which has shown to be reliable (α = .83) and valid (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
MethodInfluential
Work Characteristics or Workers’ Characteristics? An Input-Process-Output Perspective on Informal Workplace Learning of Blue-Collar Workers
Decius, J., Schaper, N., & Seifert, A. (2021) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-021-09265-5 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Are awe‐prone people more curious? The relationship between dispositional awe, curiosity, and academic outcomes
Anderson, C. L., Dixson, D. D., Monroy, M., & Keltner, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12524 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
What’s in a name? Intolerance of uncertainty, other uncertainty-relevant constructs, and their differential relations to worry and generalized anxiety disorder*
Koerner, N., Mejia, T., & Kusec, A. (2017) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2016.1211172 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“…Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009) is a self-report measure that assesses individual differences in trait curiosity, in particular a person’s general tendency to embrace everyday novel or uncertain situations and to seek out new experiences (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
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Curiosity-inducing advertising: how positive emotions and expectations drive the effect of curiosity on consumer evaluations of products
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“…curiosity has been used to describe both the desire of exploration resulting from an inherent trait, which suggests a rather stable tendency to be curious (ie trait curiosity; Day 1971; Kashdan et al. 2009), and a specific state invoked from an external environmental trigger (Grossnickle 2016).”
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“The CEI-II contains two 5-item factors: stretching (e.g., “I actively seek as much information as I can in new situations”; α = .88; M = 3.38, SD = 0.94) and embracing (e.g., “Everywhere I go, I am out looking for new things or experiences”; α = .84; M = 3.00, SD = 0.91).”
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Personality Strengths as Resilience: A One‐Year Multiwave Study
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“The 10-item Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009) measures tendencies to seek out new knowledge and experience.”
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“The findings that curiosity has more robust associations with positive aspects of functioning than with the measures of emotional distress, and that positive well-being was more strongly associated with the stretching dimension of curiosity as opposed to the embracing are consistent with previous research (Kashdan et…”
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Curiosity enhances the role of mindfulness in reducing defensive responses to existential threat
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“Veterans have greater exposure to childhood adversity and combat trauma (Katon et al., 2015), which are known to sensitize individuals to the negative effects of later stressors (Bandoli et al., 2017; Nichter, Hill, Norman, Haller, & Pietrzak, 2020a; Smid et al., 2015).”
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Factors Influencing the Adoption of Generative AI for Art Designing Among Chinese Generation Z: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
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“Grateful and curious individuals experience more positive emotions [65,76].”
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Hope into action: How clusters of hope relate to success‐oriented behavior in school
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Measuring Information Preferences
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Epistemic Curiosity and Situational Interest: Distant Cousins or Identical Twins?
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“Kashdan et al. (2009) propose that curiosity can be defined as the recognition, acceptance and pursuit of knowledge and new experiences, and identify its two components: the motivation to seek knowledge and new experiences ( stretching ) and the willingness to accept new and unpredictable…”
Science curiosity in learning environments: developing an attitudinal scale for research in schools, homes, museums, and the community
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“We conducted an exploratory factor analysis (Fabrigar, Wegener, MacCallum, & Strahan, 1999) in SPSS using maximum-likelihood estimation with Promax rotation; this procedure has been used to validate other attitudinal scales in psychology and education (e.g. Kashdan et al., 2009).”
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Understanding the role of social influence in piquing curiosity and influencing attitudes and behaviors in a social network environment
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A Case for Domain-Specific Curiosity in Mathematics
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“Trait curiosity describes the habits of mind, affect, and behavior displayed by individuals considered to have generally curious personalities (Kashdan et al. 2009; Silvia 2008).”
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What makes consumers purchase apparel products through social shopping services that social media fashion influencers have worn?
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“In Experiment 3, we aimed to replicate Experiment 2 and for exploratory purposes, we tested potential effects of individual differences in curiosity, measured with the Curiosity Exploration Inventory (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009).”
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“, 2017), and depression and anxiety (Kashdan et al., 2009).”
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“Using the Grit-O Scale (Duckworth et al., 2007), the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (Kashdan et al., 2009), positive L2 self-measures and L2 motivational measures, the researcher demonstrated that grittier students were more likely to passionately devote their time and energy to learning…”
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“The scales correlated with the HEXACO-60 (Ashton & Lee, 2009), measures of curiosity (Kashdan et al., 2009), sensation seeking (Hoyle, Stephenson, Palmgreen, Lorch, & Donohew, 2002) and hypomania (Eckblad & Chapman, 1986).”
Method
Expression of Curiosity in Social Robots
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“Session 1—Post-Free Period After the free period, participants filled out the PERTS Growth Mindset Assessment [32] and the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) [21], both measuring trait curiosity–the characteristic of always having an interest in learning or obtaining new information.”
Method
Research on the effect of uncertain rewards on impulsive purchase intention of blind box products
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Who self-initiates gratitude interventions in daily life? An examination of intentions, curiosity, depressive symptoms, and life satisfaction
Kaczmarek, L. D., Kashdan, T. B., Kleiman, E. M., Bączkowski, B. M., Enko, J., Siebers, A., Szäefer, A., Król, M., & Baran, B. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.06.013 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“The 10-item Curiosity and Exploration Inventory–II (CEI-II; Kashdan et al., 2009) included five items for stretching, assessing the degree to which people tend to seek out new knowledge and experiences (e.g., ‘Everywhere I go, I am out looking for new things or experiences’) and five for embracing, assessing the willi…”
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MENGUKUR RASA INGIN TAHU SISWA [MEASURING STUDENTS' CURIOSITY]
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Putro, N. H. P. S., & Lee, J. (2017) · Reading Psychology · doi:10.1080/02702711.2017.1341966 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“, 2004), (11) exploration (Kashdan et al., 2009), and (12) experiences of competence (Manfredo et al.”
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CURIOSITY: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Kashdan, T. B., Rose, P., & Fincham, F. D. (2013)
Self-citation
Curiosity and exploration: facilitating positive subjective experiences and personal growth opportunities
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Psychometric properties of Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II (CEI-II) in the case of a sample of Romanian students.
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Psychometric properties of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-II among Kenyan adolescents
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Psychometric of the Curiosity and Exploration Inventory-Ii in Indonesia
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Authors: Kashdan, T. B., Gallagher, M. W., Silvia, P. J., Winterstein, B. P., Breen, W. E., Terhar, D., & Steger, M. F.
Affiliations: George Mason University (US)
University of Kansas (US)
University of North Carolina at Greensboro (US)
Colorado State University (US)
Corresponding author: Kashdan, Todd B.
ORCID: Kashdan, Todd B.
Gallagher, Matthew W.
Silvia, Paul J.
Steger, Michael F.
Venue: Journal of Research in Personality
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-12
Volume: 43
Issue: 6
Pages: 987-998
ISSN: 0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.011
PMC: PMC2770180
OpenAlex: W2107615426
Cited by: 674
References: 113
Citations by year: 2026: 73 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 29 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 31 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 11.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R21MH073937)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: trait curiosity, scale development, factor structure, construct validity, item response theory, psychological flexibility, positive affect, well-being, openness to experience

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The curiosity and exploration inventory-II: Development, factor structure, and psychometrics

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