Obesity: Prevalence, causes, consequences, management, preventive strategies and future research directions

Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid; Mohammed, Ribwar Arsalan

doi:10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375

Cited by 433Obesity, Physical Activity, DietObesity and Health PracticesDiabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins

Obesity: Prevalence, causes, consequences, management, preventive strategies and future research directions

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Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid, Mohammed, Ribwar Arsalan·2025·Metabolism Open

DOI 10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375PMC PMC12486175

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Abstract

Obesity has emerged as one of the most pressing global public health challenges of the 21st century. Obesity has reached epidemic proportions worldwide, with over 1 billion people classified as obese in 2022, representing 13 % of the global population. Since 1975, obesity rates have tripled, and projections indicate that by 2035, around 1.9 billion adults-approximately 25 % of the world's population-will be affected. Looking further ahead to 2050, it is estimated that 3.80 billion adults, representing more than half of the anticipated global adult population, will be living with overweight or obesity. The increasing burden of obesity is associated with an alarming rise in non-communicable diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and multiple cancers, collectively contributing to over 5 million deaths annually. Obesity is driven by complex interactions between genetic, behavioral, environmental, and socioeconomic factors, with rapid urbanization and globalization accelerating the consumption of high-calorie diets and sedentary lifestyles. While historically prevalent in high-income nations, obesity rates are now rising most rapidly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), with over 70 % of obese individuals living in developing nations. The economic costs of obesity are staggering, with projections estimating a global financial burden of $4.32 trillion per year by 2035, equivalent to 3 % of the global GDP. This article explores the epidemiology, determinants, health implications, and policy responses to obesity, emphasizing the urgent need for multisectoral strategies to mitigate its impact. Public health initiatives, taxation on sugar-sweetened beverages, improved food regulations, and increased physical activity promotion are essential components of evidence-based interventions. Addressing the obesity crisis requires global cooperation to implement sustainable, long-term strategies targeting both prevention and treatment.

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Obesity substantially increases the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease, and certain cancers.
“Obesity substantially increases the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease, and certain cancers, while imposing enormous societal and economic burdens.[2][3][4]”
From The Triple‐Agonist Revolution: Retatrutide and the Paradigm Shift in Multi‐Hormonal Pharmacotherapy for Obesity and Cardiometabolic Comorbidities (2026) · cites this paper as [4]

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Authors: Ahmed, S. K., & Mohammed, R. A.
Affiliations: University of Raparin (IQ)
Corresponding author: Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid
ORCID: Ahmed, Sirwan Khalid
Mohammed, Ribwar Arsalan
Venue: Metabolism Open
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2025-09
Volume: 27
Pages: 100375
ISSN: 2589-9368 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.metop.2025.100375
PMC: PMC12486175
OpenAlex: W4411248990
Semantic Scholar: 0279e2a43f943eec9d75c66a6c5744b5650fb570
Cited by: 432
References: 239
Citations by year: 2026: 358 · 2025: 74
FWCI: 70.65
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
www.elsevier.com/legal/tdmrep-license (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Metabolism Open (publishedVersion, cc-by)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Obesity, Physical Activity, Diet
Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Obesity and Health Practices
Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
Keywords: obesity, obesity prevalence, obesity epidemiology, determinants of obesity, non-communicable diseases, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, economic burden of obesity, low- and middle-income countries, urbanization, sedentary lifestyle, hypercaloric diet, sugar-sweetened beverage tax, food regulation, physical activity promotion, obesity prevention, obesity treatment, multisectoral policy

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