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Oxytocin increases attention to the eyes and selectively enhances self-reported affective empathy for fear
Open accessAbstract
Oxytocin (OXT) has previously been implicated in a range of prosocial behaviors such as trust and emotion recognition. Nevertheless, recent studies have questioned the evidence for this link. In addition, there has been relatively little conclusive research on the effect of OXT on empathic ability and such studies as there are have not examined the mechanisms through which OXT might affect empathy, or whether OXT selectively facilitates empathy for specific emotions. In the current study, we used eye-tracking to assess attention to socially relevant information while participants viewed dynamic, empathy-inducing video clips, in which protagonists expressed sadness, happiness, pain or fear. In a double-blind, within-subjects, randomized control trial, 40 healthy male participants received 24 IU intranasal OXT or placebo in two identical experimental sessions, separated by a 2-week interval. OXT led to an increase in time spent fixating upon the eye-region of the protagonist's face across emotions. OXT also selectively enhanced self-reported affective empathy for fear, but did not affect cognitive or affective empathy for other emotions. Nevertheless, there was no positive relationship between eye-gaze patterns and affective empathy, suggesting that although OXT influences eye-gaze and may enhance affective empathy for fear, these two systems are independent. Future studies need to further examine the effect of OXT on eye-gaze to fully ascertain whether this can explain the improvements in emotional behavior.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
In a double-blind within-subjects RCT, intranasal oxytocin (24 IU) increased eye-region dwell time across dynamic empathy-inducing clips and selectively enhanced self-reported affective empathy for fear in healthy men. Oxytocin did not improve cognitive empathy or affective empathy for sadness, happiness, or pain, and eye-gaze changes were not positively related to empathy.
Key findings
- Oxytocin increased percentage dwell time to the eye-region across emotions: F(2,96) = 11.33, p = .002, ηp² = .26, 95% CIdiff [2.7, 10.9]; it also led to less time looking at the mouth and the rest of the face.
- Oxytocin selectively enhanced affective empathy for fear: OXT M = 3.9, SD = 1.7 vs placebo M = 3.2, SD = 1.8, p = .02, ηp² = .14, 95% CIdiff [0.1, 1.1]; differences were not significant for pain (p = 1.00), happiness (p = .25), or sadness (p = .35).
- There was no main effect of drug on cognitive empathy, F(1,39) = 0.04, p = .84, ηp² = .00, and no Drug × Emotion interaction for cognitive empathy, F(3,117) = 2.14, p = .10.
- Eye-gaze and empathy were not positively related; change in affective empathy for fear was inversely correlated with change in eye-region dwell time (Spearman’s rho = −.43, p < .05, N = 33).
Methods
- Double-blind, within-subjects, randomized placebo-controlled trial with 40 healthy male Cardiff University students (Mage = 20.98, SD = 4.55); participants received 24 IU intranasal oxytocin or placebo in two sessions separated by a 2-week interval.
- Participants viewed dynamic, empathy-inducing film clips for pain, sadness, fear, and happiness (~120 s each) while eye movements were recorded with a Tobii X2-60 eye-tracker; after each clip they completed emotion questionnaires coded for cognitive empathy (0–9) and affective empathy (0–6).
- Analyses used within-subjects ANOVAs with Drug and Emotion factors, plus Spearman correlations between OXT–placebo difference scores for empathy and eye-region dwell time; salivary oxytocin confirmed higher levels in the OXT condition (952.0 vs 46.4 pg/mL at 60 min).
Limitations
- The paper states that intranasal oxytocin pathways to brain activity and behavior are not fully understood, and that doubt exists about how much intranasal oxytocin crosses the blood-brain barrier.
- The paper states the sample was smaller than the >300 participants suggested by Walum et al. for sufficient power, so replication with larger samples is needed; it also notes the male-only sample limits generalizability to women, and undergraduates may not represent populations with empathy deficits.
- The paper states affective empathy relied on self-reports vulnerable to demand characteristics and social desirability; it also notes eye-gaze and empathy were measured at different times (4-s eye-tracking segment vs. post-clip integration over ~2 min), and the eye-tracking correlation analyses retained only 33 participants.
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Claims the paper makes
47 Not checked yet · 32 Own result · 15 Own method · 12 Own interpretation · 1 Supported · 1 Supported so far
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Additionally, women typically report higher levels of affective empathy than men (Hurlemann et al., 2010;Theodoridou et al., 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Hurlemann et al., 2010 source
The ‘Gender differences in MET ratings’ section reports significantly higher emotional empathy intensity ratings in women than in placebo-treated men. The Discussion says this gender difference agrees with other studies, supporting the claim’s description of a typical pattern. (LLM, conf=0.91)
- Supportedcites Theodoridou et al., 2013 source
The Discussion ('OT and empathy ratings when exposed to the plight of an unknown person') says women scored higher than men in empathic concern, an affective-empathy measure. It also says sex differences in self-reported empathy have often been documented, while cautioning that response bias may contribute to them. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“OXT led to an increase in time spent fixating upon the eye-region of the protagonist's face across emotions.”
- Also stated in: § Eye-gaze Patterns · plain
“OXT resulted in a greater proportion of time fixating on the eye-region”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Abstract
plaindirectn = 40- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Eye-gaze Patterns · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“OXT also selectively enhanced self-reported affective empathy for fear”
- Also stated in: § Affective Empathy · plain
“Affective empathy for fear was significantly higher (p = .02,ηp 2 =.14, 90% CIes [.02, .31], in the OXT (M = 3.9, SD = 1.7) than PL (M = 3.2, SD = 1.8) condition (95% CIdiff [0.1, 1.1]).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Abstract
plaindirectn = 40- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Also stated in: § Affective Empathy · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Results revealed a significant main effect of Emotion, F(3, 117) = 12.93, p < .001,ηp 2 = .25”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Cognitive Empathy
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Affective empathy was significantly greater for sadness (M = 4.6, SD = 0.9) compared to pain, happiness and fear (all ps < .001)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of Emotion, F(3, 117) = 16.03,p <.001, ηp 2 = .29.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“no main effect of Drug, F(1, 39) = 0.04, p = .84,ηp 2 = .00,and no interaction between Drug and Emotion, F(3, 117) = 2.14, p = .10,ηp 2 = .05.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Cognitive Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was no main effect of Drug, F(1, 39) = 0.13, p = .73,ηp 2 = .00”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up tests revealed that OXT resulted in a greater proportion of time fixating on the eye-region, F(2, 96) = 11.33,p = .002,ηp 2 = .26,90% CIes [.08, .29],95% CIdiff [2.7, 10.9]”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“but during the fear clip participants spent significantly less time looking at the face compared to the other clips (all ps <.05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“A significant main effect of Emotion, F(2.49, 79.6) = 25.81,p < .001,ηp 2 = .45,showed that participants spent significantly more time looking at the face of the main character during the sadness clip (M = 30%, SD = 4.3), compared to the happiness (M = 26%, SD = 4.3) pain (M = 24%, SD = 5.2) and fear (M = 21.2%,SD = 5.5) clips (all ps < .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We found no evidence that changes in eye-gaze resulting from OXT were related to greater empathy.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
“However, increased dwell time for the eyes was OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 18 not positively related to affective empathy for fear”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
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- Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a significantly greater proportion of time was spent looking at the mouth during the pain clip compared to the happiness, sadness and OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 13 fear clips (all ps < .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > INSERT FIGURE 3 HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and between Emotion and AOI, F(3.72, 118.96) = 20.2,p < .001,ηp 2 = .39,90% CIes [.26, .47]”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“We were also able to confirm that OXT levels were higher in the OXT condition, thereby mitigating some of the concerns associated with exogenous administration of OXT.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there were significant interactions between Drug and AOI, F(2, 64) = 10.71,p < .001,ηp 2 = .25,90% CIes [.09, .37]”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the rest of the face, F(2, 96) = 12.86, p = .001,ηp 2 = .29,90% CIes [.09, .30},95% CIdiff [-11.8, -3.2].”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“there were no significant differences in affective empathy between fear (M = 3.5, SD = 1.6), pain (M = 3.4,SD = 1.3) and happiness (M = 3.5, SD = 1.0) (all ps > .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“OXT also led to less time spent looking at the mouth, F(2, 96) = 3.73, p = .06,ηp 2 = .10,90% CIes [.004, .15],95% CIdiff [-7.2, 0.2]”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was a main effect of AOI, F(1.31, 41.95) = 35.58,p < .001,ηp 2 = .53,reflecting the fact that percentage dwell time to the eye-region was greatest (M = 36%, SD = 15.1),followed by that for the rest of the face (M = 29%, SD = 7.6); dwell time to the mouth region was significantly lower than both the eye-region (p < .001)and the rest of the face (p < .001)(M = OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 12”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“there was a significant inverse correlation between affective empathy for fear and dwell time to the eye-region (p < .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Comparing Empathy and AOI
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In the paper
“participants spent a significantly greater proportion of time fixating on the eyes during the sadness clip compared to the happiness, fear and pain clips (all ps < .05)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > INSERT FIGURE 3 HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was a significant interaction between Emotion and Drug, F(3, 117) = 2.77, p = .045,ηp 2 = .06,90% CIes [.001, .13].”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
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In the paper
“There were no differences between clips with respect to the amount of time spent fixating upon the rest of the face, F(4, 119) = 0.98, p = .41,ηp 2 = .09.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > INSERT FIGURE 3 HERE
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Affective empathy for fear was significantly higher (p = .02,ηp 2 =.14, 90% CIes [.02, .31], in the OXT (M = 3.9, SD = 1.7) than PL (M = 3.2, SD = 1.8) condition (95% CIdiff [0.1, 1.1]).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
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In the paper
“and also to increase attention to objects that are the gaze targets of static faces (Tollenaar, Chatzimanoli, van der Wee, & Putman, 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Tollenaar, Chatzimanoli, van der Wee, & Putman, 2013 source
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In the paper
“Participants could not accurately report, above chance levels, the session in which they received OXT, ( 23guessed correctly) X 2 (1) = 0.9, p = .34.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Procedure
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In the paper
“Domes et al.'s (2007) finding that OXT improves cognitive empathy as measured by the Reading the Mind in the Eye task.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Domes et al. (2007)
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In the paper
“within the ASD literature there is evidence that improved facial emotion recognition is due, in part, to participants spending more time looking at the eye area of faces (e.g., Andari et al., 2010).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Andari et al., 2010 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“coupled with evidence suggesting that OXT may have a selective effect on the processing of fearful facial expressions (Fischer-Shofty, Shamay-Tsoory, Harari & OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 6 Levkovitz, 2010; Leppanen, 2017)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fischer-Shofty, Shamay-Tsoory, Harari & Levkovitz, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Leppanen, 2017 source
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In the paper
“in view of evidence of large variations in individual responsivity to OXT across participants (Daughters et al., 2015)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Daughters et al., 2015 source
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In the paper
“OXT has been shown to increase gaze toward the eye-region of neutral faces (Guastella, Mitchell, & Dadds, 2008)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Guastella, Mitchell, & Dadds, 2008 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Given that OXT appears to have differential effects in different contexts (e.g., De Dreu et al., 2010)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites De Dreu et al., 2010 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“mean saliva oxytocin concentration (in pg/mL) for all participants 60 min after administration (during the empathy task) was 952.0 during OXT and 46.4 during PL”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Saliva Samples
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- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“they do not distinguish between empathy, sympathy and personal distress (Zhou, Valiente & Eisenberg, 2003).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zhou, Valiente & Eisenberg, 2003
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This is inconsistent with the findings from Domes et al. (2007) who found that OXT improved cognitive empathy.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Domes et al. (2007)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that in a separate task, using the same group of participants but static facial expressions, OXT did not result in significant changes in eye-gaze (Hubble et al., 2016)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hubble et al., 2016
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the present findings are consistent with evidence that OXT influences the salience of threatening stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the observed increase in affective empathy for fear did not result from increased attention to socially relevant stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results may therefore not be generalizable to women.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The selective effect of OXT on fear observed in the present study is consistent with findings from research exploring the effect of OXT on facial emotion recognition.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which also suggests that the dynamic nature of the stimulus was important in the current finding.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This method has the advantage of being able to draw conclusions about cause and effect relationships, which would not be possible if one were correlating endogenous oxytocin with empathy or eye-gaze.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that OXT has been found to have stronger effects when task difficulty is higher (Domes et al., 2007a;Feeser et al., 2015)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Domes et al., 2007a
- Not checked yetcites Feeser et al., 2015 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“neuroimaging evidence suggests that the administration of OXT inhibits amygdala activation (Domes et al., 2007b;Kirsch et al., 2005;Singer et al., 2008)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus the present findings are consistent with evidence that OXT influences the salience of threatening stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“suggesting the effect of OXT on empathy may be greater in populations showing empathy deficits (Feeser et al., 2015).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Feeser et al., 2015 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“instead, the results suggest that eye-gaze may be less important in everyday interactions than it is in studies simply investigating responses to facial images.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Probably not a substantial claim. 36
- It may state two separate claims as one. 33
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In response to recent reviews that are critical of the quality and rigor of OXT research (Churchland & Winkielman, 2012;Leng & Ludwig, 2016;Walum, Waldman, & Young, 2016)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Churchland & Winkielman, 2012
- Supportedcites Leng & Ludwig, 2016 source
The paper’s Publication bias section criticizes statistical practices, methodological weaknesses, and publication bias in intranasal oxytocin research. It also calls for preregistration and clearer reporting to improve rigor. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Supportedcites Walum, Waldman, & Young, 2016 source
The Abstract describes this paper as an assessment of statistical power and bias in human intranasal oxytocin studies, concluding that the studies are generally underpowered and many published findings may not reflect true effects. The Introduction likewise identifies statistical and methodological limitations and calls for cautious interpretation. This supports citing the paper as a review critical of the quality and rigor of this research. (LLM, conf=0.94)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there was no positive relationship between eye-gaze patterns and affective empathy”
- Also stated in: § Comparing Empathy and AOI · plain
“there was a significant inverse correlation between affective empathy for fear and dwell time to the eye-region (p < .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Abstract
plaincorrelationaln = 40- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Comparing Empathy and AOI · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up analyses revealed that cognitive empathy for pain (M = 6.4,SD=0.7), and fear (M = 6.5, SD = 0.9) were similar (p > .05)and significantly higher than those for sadness (M = 5.9, SD = 0.7) and happiness (M = 5.9, SD = 0.8) (all ps <.05) which did not differ (p > .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Cognitive Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The corresponding differences were not significant for pain (p = 1.00), happiness (p = .25)or sadness (p = .35).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Affective Empathy
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Indeed, improved empathy for fear was associated with a reduced time looking at the eye region, a pattern that was also evident for other emotions, albeit to a lesser extent.”
- Also stated in: § OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 19 · plain
“Fear -.43* Fear -.33 +”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
plaincorrelationaln = 33- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 19 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Dwell times for the eye-region and the rest of the face did not significantly differ from each other (p = .13).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that OXT led to a general increase in the amount of time participants fixated on the eye-region of the face for four different types of emotion.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
“we show for the first time using an emotioninducing film clip paradigm that OXT significantly increased gaze towards the eye-region of faces across the four emotions studied here.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Conclusion · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The main effect of Drug was marginal, F(1, 32) = 3.76, p = .06,ηp 2 = .11,and reflected the fact that participants in the PL condition tended to spend more time looking at the face in general (M = 26%, SD = 3.3) compared to the OXT condition (M = 25%, SD = 4.4).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The present results suggest that the administration of OXT selectively enhances affective empathy for fear, whilst leaving cognitive empathy and affective empathy for sadness, happiness and pain unaffected.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Conclusion
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“another showing that OXT results in increased gaze to the eye areas for positive faces but decreased gaze to the eyes for negative faces (Domes, Steiner, Porges & Heinrichs, 2013)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Domes, Steiner, Porges & Heinrichs, 2013
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“one study suggesting that OXT selectively enhances gaze to the eyes (Auyeung et al. 2015)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Auyeung et al. 2015 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“two studies using subjective ratings of responses to painful stimuli found that OXT did not have a main effect on pain ratings, but did increase ratings as a function of the perspective (self vs. other) participants were asked to take, or the nationality of the person with whom to empathize (Abu-Akel, Palgi, Klein, Decety & Shamay-Tsoory 2015;Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Abu-Akel, Palgi, Klein, Decety & Shamay-Tsoory 2015
- Not checked yetcites Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2013 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There were no significant differences in OXT concentrations between those included and excluded from the eye-tracking analysis (p > .05).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Saliva Samples
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Attempts to replicate these findings have proven unsuccessful, raising doubts about the effect of OXT on cognitive empathy (Radke & de Bruijn, 2015).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Radke & de Bruijn, 2015 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The measures exhibited satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach's alphas: cognitive empathy = 0.70; affective empathy = 0.83).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a recent study found that empathy-related activation in the neural circuitry of pain was strongly reduced after intranasal OXT, suggesting that OXT might decrease empathy for pain (Bos, Montoya, Hermans, Keysers, & van Honk, 2015).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bos, Montoya, Hermans, Keysers, & van Honk, 2015 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These responses were coded for cognitive and affective empathy by research assistants who were blind to the participants' drug condition.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that although OXT influences eye-gaze and may enhance affective empathy for fear, these two systems are independent.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Abstract
hedgedn = 40- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Interrater reliability (Cohen k) between two trained coders on a subset of 10% of the data across clips ranged from .74 to .82)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Such findings have led to the suggestion that OXT might improve prosocial behavior by increasing attention to socially relevant cues (Guastella et al., 2008).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Guastella et al., 2008 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“but instead are related to pupil dilation (Prehn et al., 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Prehn et al., 2013 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“others suggesting that improvements in facial emotion recognition are unaffected by eye-gaze (Hubble et al., 2016;Lischke et al., 2012; )”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hubble et al., 2016
- Not checked yetcites Lischke et al., 2012 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One participant whose validity fell below 70%, meaning eye-tracking data were not available for more than 30% of the recording, was excluded from the final analysis.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, participants who identified the correct spray order indicated that they were less certain of that order than those who reported the incorrect order (Correct M = 3.8; Incorrect M = 5.7), t(38) = 2.35, p = .024.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Procedure
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A number of studies have further suggested that OXT only improves cognitive empathy in people who rate themselves as less socially proficient (Bartz et al., 2010)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bartz et al., 2010 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“or who display lower baseline trait empathy scores (Feeser et al., 2015).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Feeser et al., 2015 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“One set of film clips (i.e., those for pain, sadness, fear and happiness) had previously been validated (see van Rijn, Barendse, van Goozen, & Swaab, 2014).The current study used four additional clips, which were selected based on similarity scores from a pilot study to match the previous set of clips with respect to duration, content and emotional intensity.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites van Rijn, Barendse, van Goozen, & Swaab, 2014
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The order in which they received OXT or placebo nasal spray was randomized and counterbalanced, with researchers and participants remaining blind to this order.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Method Participants
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theodoridou, Rowe, and Mohr (2013) found that the selfreported components of affective empathy were unaffected by the administration of OXT, but that performance on a more implicit measure of cognitive empathy was enhanced following OXT.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Theodoridou, Rowe, and Mohr (2013)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Singer and colleagues (2008) found that OXT OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 5 neither enhanced subjective empathy nor increased activation in empathy-relevant brain areas such as the anterior insula (AI) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Singer et al. (2008) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a recent metaanalysis of 33 studies found that OXT did not significantly influence emotional theory of minda similar construct to cognitive empathyor the expression of negative emotions in healthy individuals (Leppanen, Ng, Tchanturia & Treasure, 2017).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Leppanen, Ng, Tchanturia & Treasure, 2017
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They found that intranasal OXT increased affective, but not cognitive empathy in response to both positively and negatively valenced stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 4
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hurlemann et al. (2010) source
plaindirectn = 48- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data from seven participants were excluded due to poor calibration quality.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Measures and Materials
plainn = 7- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In a further meta-analysis, Leppanen, Ng, Kim, Tchanturia, and Treasure, (2018) found that OXT significantly increased the physiological startle response to threat in healthy participants, but did not increase fixations to threatening stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Leppanen, Ng, Kim, Tchanturia, and Treasure, (2018)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“doubt has been cast on the extent to which intranasal OXT crosses the blood-brain barrier (Neumann et al., 2013;Paloyelis et al., 2014;Striepens et al., 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“OXT has also been found to increase attention and approach towards fearful facial expressions (Clark-Elford et al., 2015;Tollenaar et al., 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark-Elford et al., 2015
- Not checked yetcites Tollenaar et al., 2013 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“our study represents an improvement on many previous studies, especially given that it benefitted from the use of a within-subject design.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Studies examining the convergence between different measures of affective empathy show that some measurements, such as self-report measures and facial responsiveness, correlate with each other (Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous & Warden, 2007), suggesting there is a common construct that is tapped by each measure.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Anastassiou-Hadjicharalambous & Warden, 2007
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A possible reason for this discrepancy in findings is that the empathyinducing stimuli differed between the two studies.Hurlemann et al. used static photos, whereas we used dynamic clips.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“it is possible that our results may not be generalizable to populations who might find these tasks more challenging.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Self-reported emotional states can be confounded by conscious awareness of the response or even the willingness to report this response.They are also vulnerable to demand characteristics and social desirability (e.g., Eisenberg-Berg & Hand, 1979).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eisenberg-Berg & Hand, 1979
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, our findings are partly consistent with evidence from Hurlemann et al. (2010), who found that OXT increased affective but not cognitive empathy, although these authors found increased affective empathy for both positively and negatively valenced stimuli.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hurlemann et al. (2010) source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Walum et al. (2016) also raised concerns about the power of OXT studies, suggesting that a sample size of more than 300 participants is needed to achieve sufficient power, compared to the average of 49 participants (between-subjects) used in previous studies.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walum et al. (2016) source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“while it has been demonstrated that OXT decreases amygdala activity in response to fear in men (Kirsch et al., 2005), it appears to increase amygdala activity to similar stimuli in women (Domes et al., 2010).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the pathways through which intranasal OXT affects brain activity and behavioral responses are not fully understood (e.g., McCullough, Churchland, & Mendez, 2013).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McCullough, Churchland, & Mendez, 2013
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Sample size was determined based on the number of participants used in previous key studies.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Acknowledgements
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Evidence suggests that there are sex differences in empathic abilities (e.g., Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Baron-Cohen & Wheelwright, 2004 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors confirm that all conditions and data exclusions, including the reasons for these exclusions, have been reported.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Acknowledgements
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Dynamic clips are arguably of greater ecological validity, in that they reflect more closely the kind of everyday interpersonal interaction in which an empathic response could be aroused (Karrow & Connors, 2003).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Karrow & Connors, 2003
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“These results contrast with those reported by Lischke et al. (2012), who found no evidence that OXT altered eye-gaze in healthy participants.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lischke et al. (2012) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given the evidence that OXT may be especially involved in the initial allocation of attentional resources (Gamer, Zurowski & Buchel, 2010)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gamer, Zurowski & Buchel, 2010
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Participants therefore had access to non-facial cues, such as tone of voice, gestures and contextual information.This may have rendered information from the face less important.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, Korb et al. (2016), used facial EMG to show that facial mimicry increased during OXT, particularly in response to angry infant faces.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Korb et al. (2016) source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“it is possible that OXT modulates different cortical regions that are important for processing threatening stimuli, and thereby improves affective empathy for fear (Fischer-Shofty et al., 2010).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fischer-Shofty et al., 2010 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the widely held, but rarely tested, notion that OXT-induced effects on emotional responding result from increased attention to socially relevant stimuli is in need of closer scrutiny.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Conclusion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Before this study, no research had examined eye-gaze as a possible mediator of enhanced empathy.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although there is good evidence that intranasal OXT increases the concentration of endogenous OXT found in blood plasma and saliva (Daughters et al., 2015;Gossen et al., 2012;Weisman et al., 2012)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Limitations
What the sources say
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“OXT binding sites have been observed in different areas of the rats brain that are involved in emotion processing (Febo, Numan & Ferris, 2005;Ferris, 2008;Smeltzer, Cutis, Aragona & Wang, 2006)”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Febo, Numan & Ferris, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Ferris, 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Smeltzer, Cutis, Aragona & Wang, 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A final limitation is that we examined the effects of OXT in a male-only sample.This arose from the practical and ethical complications entailed in administering OXT to women.”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > OXYTOCIN, EMPATHY AND EYE-GAZE 17
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“they reflect arousal but are relatively insensitive to valence; see Lang, Greenwald, Bradley & Hamm,”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lang, Greenwald, Bradley & Hamm, 1993
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, our results are consistent with evidence from ASD literature suggesting that OXT increases attention to socially relevant stimuli, and specifically for the eye-region (e.g., Andari et al., 2010).”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Andari et al., 2010 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Improvements in facial emotion recognition caused by oxytocin administration come from increased attention to the eye region.
The paper relies on this without support.
No prior study has examined the effect of oxytocin on eye-gaze in relation to empathy.
“To our knowledge, no study to date has examined the effect of OXT on eye-gaze in relation to empathy.”
The paper relies on this without support.
None of the previous studies on oxytocin and empathy used dynamic real-world stimuli.
“none of the previous studies examining OXT and empathy used dynamic real-world stimuli.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most oxytocin studies to date have used between-subjects designs.
“A further point is that most OXT studies to date have used between-subjects designs.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Salivary oxytocin concentration is a valid indicator that intranasal oxytocin has its intended central effect.
“These samples were analyzed to measure salivary OXT at each of these time points.These analyses revealed the OXT nasal sprays were successful in increasing OXT levels”
The paper relies on this without support.
Improvements in facial emotion recognition caused by oxytocin administration come from increased attention to the eye region.
“ASD researchers have argued that improvements in facial emotion recognition associated with OXT administration result from increased attention to the eye-region, although few studies have empirically tested this notion.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Before this study, no research had examined eye-gaze as a possible mediator of enhanced empathy.
“no prior study has examined eye-gaze as a possible mediator of enhanced empathy.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“IN-OXT has also been shown in an increasing number of studies to change social visual attention in non-clinical populations of humans77–81.”
From Effect of age and autism spectrum disorder on oxytocin receptor density in the human basal forebrain and midbrain (2018) · cites this paper as [77]
Statistics that don’t add up
Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
“F(2.29, 73.2) = .05,p = .99”
§ Oxytocin Increases Attention to the Eyes and Selectively Enhances Self-Reported Affective Empathy for Fear > Eye-gaze Patterns
Reported p = .99 · recomputed p = .966
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Doesn’t add upF(2.29, 73.2) = 0.05reported p = .99 · recomputed p = .966
“F(2.29, 73.2) = .05,p = .99”
- Consistentχ²(1) = 0.9reported p = .34 · recomputed p = .343
“X 2 (1) = 0.9, p = .34”
- Consistentt(38) = 2.35reported p = .024 · recomputed p = .024
“t(38) = 2.35, p = .024”
- ConsistentF(3, 117) = 12.93reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 117) = 12.93, p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 39) = 0.04reported p = .84 · recomputed p = .843
“F(1, 39) = 0.04, p = .84”
- ConsistentF(3, 117) = 2.14reported p = .1 · recomputed p = .099
“F(3, 117) = 2.14, p = .10”
- ConsistentF(3, 117) = 16.03reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3, 117) = 16.03,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 39) = 0.13reported p = .73 · recomputed p = .720
“F(1, 39) = 0.13, p = .73”
- ConsistentF(3, 117) = 2.77reported p = .045 · recomputed p = .045
“F(3, 117) = 2.77, p = .045”
- ConsistentF(1.31, 41.95) = 35.58reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(1.31, 41.95) = 35.58,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2.49, 79.6) = 25.81reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2.49, 79.6) = 25.81,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(1, 32) = 3.76reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .061
“F(1, 32) = 3.76, p = .06”
- ConsistentF(2, 64) = 10.71reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 64) = 10.71,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(3.72, 118.96) = 20.2reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(3.72, 118.96) = 20.2,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(2, 96) = 11.33reported p = .002 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 96) = 11.33,p = .002”
The paper states a sphericity correction
- ConsistentF(2, 96) = 3.73reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .028
“F(2, 96) = 3.73, p = .06”
The paper states a sphericity correction
- ConsistentF(2, 96) = 12.86reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(2, 96) = 12.86, p = .001”
The paper prints p at a floor (such as p < .001)
- ConsistentF(4, 119) = 34.05reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(4, 119) = 34.05,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(4, 119) = 21.29reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“F(4, 119) = 21.29,p < .001”
- ConsistentF(4, 119) = 0.98reported p = .41 · recomputed p = .421
“F(4, 119) = 0.98, p = .41”
The paper states a sphericity correction
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
2 retracted
Hofmann, S. G., Fang, A., & Brager, D. N. (2015) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2015.05.039 · Cited by 44
RetractedHofmann, S. G., Fang, A., & Brager, D. N. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.055 · Cited by 3
RetractedStatistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences
Muller, K. E., & Cohen, J. (1989) · Technometrics · doi:10.2307/1270020 · Cited by 99,603
Baron-Cohen, S., & Wheelwright, S. (2004) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1023/b:jadd.0000022607.19833.00 · Cited by 4,093
Oxytocin increases trust in humans
Kosfeld, M., Heinrichs, M., Zak, P. J., Fischbacher, U., & Fehr, E. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature03701 · Cited by 3,690
The functional architecture of human empathy
Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004) · Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews · doi:10.1177/1534582304267187 · Cited by 3,407
Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions
LANG, P. J., GREENWALD, M. K., BRADLEY, M. M., & HAMM, A. O. (1993) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1993.tb03352.x · Cited by 3,190
Hoffman, M. L. (2000) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511805851 · Cited by 2,967
Putting the Altruism Back into Altruism: The Evolution of Empathy
de Waal, F. B. M. (2008) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625 · Cited by 2,483
The social neuroscience of empathy
Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x · Cited by 1,981
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Emotional Brain, Fear, and the Amygdala
LeDoux, J. (2003) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1023/a:1025048802629 · Cited by 1,818
Marsh, A. A. (2018) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103010 · Cited by 171
“Oxytocin seems to amplify the amygdala’s sensitivity to fearful cues (Wang et al. 2017), with oxytocin administration selectively improving recognition of fearful expressions (Leppanen et al. 2017) and increasing self-reported empathy for those expressing fear (Hubble et al. 2017).”
BackgroundOxytocin and the Neurobiology of Prosocial Behavior
Marsh, N., Marsh, A. A., Lee, M. R., & Hurlemann, R. (2020) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858420960111 · Cited by 159
Freeman, S. M., Palumbo, M. C., Lawrence, R. H., Smith, A. L., Goodman, M. M., & Bales, K. L. (2018) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-018-0315-3 · Cited by 82
Associations between oxytocin and empathy in humans: A systematic literature review
Barchi-Ferreira, A. M., & Osório, F. D. L. (2021) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2021.105268 · Cited by 65
Metadata
- Authors
- Hubble, K., Daughters, K., Manstead, A. S. R., Rees, A., Thapar, A., & van Goozen, S. H. M.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Venue
- Neuropsychologia
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 106
- Pages
- 350-357
- ISSN
- 0028-3932 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2765126250
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 8.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- orca.cardiff.ac.uk
- Locations
- Neuropsychologia (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
- ORCA Online Research @Cardiff (Cardiff University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Economic and Social Research Council (ES/J500197/1)
- Wellcome Trust
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Keywords
- oxytocin, affective empathy, fear, gaze, emotion recognition, social attention, intranasal oxytocin, eye fixations
- MeSH terms
- Facial Recognition, Administration, Intranasal, Adult, Affect, Attention, Double-Blind Method, Empathy, Eye Movements, Fear, Fixation, Ocular, Humans, Male, Oxytocin, Eye Movement Measurements, Young Adult, Self Report
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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