Smart technology, artificial intelligence, robotics, and algorithms (STARA): employees' perceptions of our future workplace

May combine two claims.

At high levels of STARA awareness, younger respondents reported a significant drop in organisational commitment and career satisfaction, while older employees held fairly stable levels.

“However, at high levels of STARA awareness, significant differences are found.Older employees hold fairly stable levels of organisational commitment and career satisfaction, while younger respondents report a significant drop in organisational commitment and career satisfaction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The qualitative comments showed a wide spread and reflected the quantitative STARA awareness data somewhat (mean 1.7 on a 1-5 scale).

“Overall, there is a wide spread of comments amongst the responses and this reflects the quantitative data of STARA awareness somewhat (with a low M = 1.7, on a 1-5-point scale).”

May combine two claims.

At high levels of STARA awareness, younger respondents reported a significant increase in turnover intentions, while older employees held fairly stable levels.

“At high levels of STARA awareness, these significant differences are exacerbated, with older employees holding fairly stable levels of turnover intentions, while younger respondents report a significant increase in turnover intentions.”

May combine two claims.

In the qualitative analysis, 35 quotes were coded as no threat from STARA, 18 as potential threat, and 14 as real threat.

“In total, 35 quotes were coded as 1 (no threat from STARA), 18 quotes were coded as 2 (potential threat from STARA), and 14 quotes were coded as 3 (perceived a real threat from STARA).”

May combine two claims.

Some qualitative comments reflected strong STARA awareness but no loss of jobs.

“Indeed, some qualitative comments reflected strong STARA awareness but no loss of jobs.”

May combine two claims.

Employees with a higher perception of STARA are likely to have higher adverse effects on turnover intentions, depression, and cynicism.

“In addition, employees with a higher perception of STARA are likely to have higher adverse effects on turnover intentions, depression, and cynicism.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The qualitative quotes and their coding provide insight into the proportion of participants who were aware of STARA in their current job or career.

“This is also reflected in the results from the qualitative quotes (and subsequent coding of these quotes), which provide an insight into the proportion of participants who were aware of STARA in their current job or career.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The costs of robots with high-precision dexterity are falling significantly.

“Furthermore, the costs of robots with highprecision dexterity are falling significantly (Frey & Osborne, 2013).”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The STARA Awareness 4 items loaded onto a single factor with eigenvalues >1 (2.874), accounted for 71.9% of variance, and achieved very good reliability (α = 0.85).

“To confirm the factor structure, we conducted factor analysis (principal components, varimax rotation) and the 4 items loaded onto a single factor with eigenvalues >1 (2.874) accounted for a sizeable amount of variance (71.9%) and achieved very good reliability (α = 0.85).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

47% of jobs are at risk of being taken by STARA.

“Overall, this seminal research suggested that 47% of jobs are at risk of being taken by STARA (Frey & Osborne, 2013).”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The study used purposeful sampling to attract a broad range of employees within the service sector.

“Purposeful sampling was undertaken to attract a broad range of employees within the service sector (Coyne, 1997).”

• cites Coyne, 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Career planning has several key and sequential parts based on information about one's interests, values, and talents, workplace opportunities, and work-family/leisure interests.

“This approach, developed for this study, is positioned within the career-planning literature with Greenhaus and Kopelman (1981), suggesting that career planning has several key and sequential parts.These parts are based on the information surrounding: (1) one's interests, values, and talents, (2) the workplace opportunities, and (3) work-family/leisure interests.”

• cites Greenhaus and Kopelman (1981)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Employees with higher levels of career planning had more effective careers.

“Early career-planning research by Gould (1979) suggested that employees with higher levels of career planning had more effective careers.”

• cites Gould (1979) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

When needs are unsatisfied within one's career options, nervousness and stress can develop within a workplace.

“Chen, Chang, and Yeh (2004) suggested that when needs are unsatisfied within one's career options there could be a development of nervousness and stress within a workplace.”

• cites Chen, Chang, and Yeh (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is little known about whether employees are planning new career paths factoring in the potential for STARA.

“Consequently, there is little known about whether employees are planning new career paths factoring in the potential for STARA.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

When there is a gap between career-development programmes and career needs, employees' job attitudes are affected, for example, by having higher turnover intentions.

“Overall, they found that when there was a gap between career-development programmes and career needs, the employees' job attitudes were affected, for example, by having higher turnover intentions.”

• cites Chen, Chang, and Yeh (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Harman's One Factor Test resulted in seven factors, with the largest factor accounting for less than 30% of the overall variance, suggesting that common-method variance is not an issue.

“One test of common-method variance (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003) is Harman's One Factor Test and the factor analysis (unrotated) resulted in seven factors, with the largest factor accounting for less than 30% of the overall variance.This suggests that common-method variance is not an issue (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).”

• cites Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Podsakoff & Organ, 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Jobs at risk from STARA include accountants, market research analysts, commercial pilots, customer service, sales staff, and office/administration workers.

“For example, jobs at risk include accountants, market research analysts, commercial pilots, customer service, sales staff, and office/administration workers, etc. (Frey & Osborne, 2013).”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Ethics approval was granted by the first author's University ethics office (Massey University).

“Ethics approval was granted by the first author's University ethics office (Massey University).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between commitment and turnover (actual and intended) is stronger in the early career stage than in the mid and late-career stage.

“A meta-analysis with age and career found that 'the relationship between commitment and turnover (actual and intended) is stronger in the early career stage than in the mid and late-career stage' (Cohen, 1991: 253).”

• cites Cohen, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

If the predictions of Frey and Osborne (2013) are even partly correct, workplace opportunities could be reduced significantly, making it harder to plan one's career.

“If the predictions of Frey and Osborne (2013) are even partly correct, workplace opportunities could be reduced significantly, making it harder to plan one's career.”

• cites Frey and Osborne (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Sophisticated algorithms are being used in legal research; for example, the Clearwell system was programmed to analyse and sort 570,000 documents in 2 days.

“Sophisticated algorithms are being used in legal research: for example, the Clearwell system was programmed to analyse and sort 570,000 documents in 2 days (Frey & Osborne, 2013), a job that would have normally been conducted by lawyers and paralegals.”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Thematic analysis generated three broad thematic categories: (1) No threat, (2) Potential threat, and (3) The threat is real.

“A thematic analysis (i.e., both authors independently and then together coded responses) generated three broad thematic categories: (1) No threat (participants do not envisage STARA affecting their current job or career), (2) Potential threat (participants can envisage STARA playing a role in their future job or career), and (3) The threat is real (participants are aware of STARA being used within”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

New technologies may take jobs that will not be replaced.

“The Economist (2014) warns that new technologies may take jobs that will not be replaced.”

• cites The Economist (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The effect of STARA in the service sector will be like a new industrial revolution and will take decades to play out.

“The effect of STARA in the service sector will be like a new industrial revolution and will take decades to play out (Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2011).”

• cites Brynjolfsson & McAfee, 2011Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One-third of jobs that exist today could be taken by STARA by 2025.

“Futurists predict that a third of jobs that exist today could be taken by Smart Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Algorithms (STARA) by 2025.”

• Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · hedged

  “It is estimated that one-third of jobs that exist today could be taken by STARA by 2025 (Frey & Osborne, 2013;Thibodeau, 2014).”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Thibodeau, 2014Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Younger individuals, being at the start of their careers, plan more than older employees, who are at the end of their careers and will likely stay in their current profession until retirement.

“Overall, the careerplanning process is ongoing, and it is widely accepted that younger individuals, being at the start of their careers, plan more than older employees, who are at the end of their careers, and will likely stay in their current profession until retirement (Morrow & McElroy, 1987).”

• cites Morrow & McElroy, 1987 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is little empirical research regarding the level of employee awareness of potential STARA changes.

“Regardless of what the future holds, the present study suggests that there is little empirical research regarding the level of employee awareness of these potential changes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Long-term uncertainty in a job is more detrimental than knowing whether one is going to be made redundant.

“Overall, Dekker and Schaufeli came to the conclusion that longterm uncertainty in a job was more detrimental than knowing whether one was going to be made redundant, stating that the 'silence from above surely erodes the extent to which workers experience control over the future of their jobs ' (1995: 62).”

• cites Dekker and Schaufeli (1995) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Young people are more accepting of mobile technology.

“Chan-Olmsted, Rim, and Zerba (2013) report that young people are more accepting of mobile technology, while Niehaves and Plattfaut (2014) confirm that technology use is higher amongst younger people.”

• cites Chan-Olmsted, Rim, and Zerba (2013) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The response rate for the study was 28.6% (120 participants from 420 surveys distributed).

“In total, 420 online and physical surveys were distributed, and 120 participants responded to David Brougham and Jarrod Haar the survey, the response rate for this study was 28.6%.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A study of 702 occupations detailed the probability of computerisation (i.e., STARA) taking jobs.

“A study of 702 occupations detailed the probability of computerisation (i.e., STARA) taking jobs.”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Career satisfaction promotes self-esteem at work and overall commitment to one's career.

“Career satisfaction then promotes self-esteem at work and overall commitment to one's career (Aryee & Debrah, 1993).”

• cites Aryee & Debrah, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Many of the jobs at risk are not low-skilled positions but high-paying middle-class jobs, and many are in the service sector.

“Many of these jobs are not low-skilled positions, but high-paying middle-class jobs, and many of these jobs are in the service sector.”

• cites Frey & Osborne, 2013Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The old picture of stable employment and associated organizational careers is fading.

“Inkson summarised what is happening to careers by stating that 'the old picture of stable employment and associated organizational careers is fading ' (2006: 297).”

• cites Inkson (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Successful career planning leads to a strategy being formed to meet one's goals, which in turn affects career satisfaction.

“For example, successful career planning leads to a strategy being formed to meet one's goals, which in turn affects career satisfaction.”

• cites Aryee & Debrah, 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Employees in general have little belief that robots and automation will take over jobs in the workplace and do not perceive STARA as a threat.

“With a mean score of 1.7 (on a 1-5 scale), it would appear there is little belief in the idea of robots and automation taking over jobs in the workplace.”

• Also stated in: § Conclusion · plain

  “It is important that we prepare adequately, as the overall findings show that employees in general do not perceive STARA to be a threat, despite what well respected business people, scientists, and academics are predicting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

STARA could be seen as part of the progression of undermining long-term commitment within an organisation or industry.

“STARA could be seen as part of this progression of undermining longterm commitment within an organisation or industry.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Boundaryless careers could become more prevalent in the future due to technology changes.

“reinforcing turbulent changes of a boundaryless career, which could become more prevalent in the future due to technology changes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Unmet growth-related career expectations have been associated with stress, burnout, and turnover intentions.

“Overall, the findings from the study are not surprising considering that 'unmet growth-related career expectations, in turn, have been associated with stress, burnout, and turnover intentions' (Virtanen et al., 2003: 31).”

• cites Virtanen et al., 2003 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

STARA may be tapping into something at the core of fundamental work and career planning.

“and this suggests it may indeed be tapping into something at the core of fundamental work and career planning.”

May combine two claims.

Employee loyalty and commitment have been reduced as the prospect of lifetime employment in one organisation has slipped away, especially with the rise of temporary contracts.

“It is clear that employee loyalty and commitment have been reduced as the prospect of lifetime employment in one organisation has slipped away (Mirvis & Hall, 1996): this is especially true with the rise of temporary contracts.”

• cites Mirvis & Hall, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The advent of STARA might end successful career planning and lead to the detrimental effects found here.

“Consequently, the advent of STARA might spell the end to successful career planning and thus lead to the detrimental effects found here”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Career planning can promote a positive cycle that increases career satisfaction and self-esteem at work.

“This falls into line with the career-planning model put forward by Aryee and Debrah (1993), who suggested that career planning can promote a positive cycle that increases career satisfaction and self-esteem at work.”

• cites Aryee and Debrah (1993) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source