A multidisciplinary survey on discrimination analysis

Romei, Andrea; Ruggieri, Salvatore

doi:10.1017/s0269888913000039

Cited by 288Ethics and Social Impacts of AINames, Identity, and Discrimination ResearchDiscrimination and Equality Law

A multidisciplinary survey on discrimination analysis

Romei, Andrea, Ruggieri, Salvatore·2014·The Knowledge Engineering Review

DOI 10.1017/s0269888913000039

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

The collection and analysis of observational and experimental data represent the main tools for assessing the presence, the extent, the nature, and the trend of discrimination phenomena. Data analysis techniques have been proposed in the last 50 years in the economic, legal, statistical, and, recently, in the data mining literature. This is not surprising, since discrimination analysis is a multidisciplinary problem, involving sociological causes, legal argumentations, economic models, statistical techniques, and computational issues. The objective of this survey is to provide a guidance and a glue for researchers and anti-discrimination data analysts on concepts, problems, application areas, datasets, methods, and approaches from a multidisciplinary perspective. We organize the approaches according to their method of data collection as observational, quasi-experimental, and experimental studies. A fourth line of recently blooming research on knowledge discovery based methods is also covered. Observational methods are further categorized on the basis of their application context: labor economics, social profiling, consumer markets, and others.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0269888913000039

Cites

442 of 442 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Not considering correlated variables has been shown to increase the risk of discrimination.
“Not considering correlated variables has been shown to increase the risk of discrimination (e.g., redlining 4 ) [54,88,89,89,196,202,231,247,286,308].”
From Fairness in machine learning: A survey (2024) · cites this paper as [247]
There is a risk of redlining, where although the sensitive attribute is 'handled' sufficiently, correlated variables are still present, amplifying instead of reducing unfairness.
“There is also the risk of redlining, where although the sensitive attribute is łhandledž suiciently, correlated variables are still present [54,89,231,247,286,308], amplifying instead of reducing unfairness [89].”
From Fairness in machine learning: A survey (2024) · cites this paper as [247]

Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences
Guitton, H., & Siegel, S. (1958) · Revue économique · doi:10.2307/3498751 · Cited by 35,281 · see citing works
The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects
ROSENBAUM, P. R., & RUBIN, D. B. (1983) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/70.1.41 · Cited by 31,241 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models
(2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-387-27255-0_9 · Cited by 20,333 · see citing works
Statistical Methods for Rates and Proportions
Fleiss, J. L., Levin, B., & Paik, M. C. (2003) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471445428 · Cited by 18,646 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models
McCullagh, P., & Nelder, J. A. (1989) · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-3242-6 · Cited by 16,836 · see citing works
Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference
Pearl, J. (2009) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511803161 · Cited by 11,653 · see citing works
How Much Should We Trust Differences-in-Differences Estimates?
Bertrand, M., Duflo, E., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355304772839588 · Cited by 10,641 · see citing works
Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets
Oaxaca, R. (1973) · International Economic Review · doi:10.2307/2525981 · Cited by 8,463 · see citing works
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,181 · see citing works
The American Psychological Association
Langfeld, H. S. (1919) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.49.1254.51 · Cited by 7,453 · see citing works
Nonparametric statistics for the behavioral sciences
McGinn, L. C. (1957) · Journal of the Franklin Institute · doi:10.1016/0016-0032(57)90766-4 · Cited by 7,284 · see citing works
Wage discrimination: Reduced form and structural estimates
Blinder, A. S. (1973) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.2307/144855 · Cited by 6,922 · see citing works
Categorical Data Analysis
Agresti, A. (2002) · Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics · doi:10.1002/0471249688 · Cited by 6,746 · see citing works
Introduction to Spatial Econometrics
LeSage, J. P., & Pace, R. K. (2009) · Chapman & Hall/CRC eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420064254 · Cited by 5,558 · see citing works
Dynamic models of segregation
Schelling, T. (1971) · Journal of Mathematical Sociology · doi:10.1080/0022250x.1971.9989794 · Cited by 4,966 · see citing works
Multilevel Statistical Models
Goldstein, H. (2006) · Technometrics · doi:10.1198/tech.2006.s417 · Cited by 4,960 · see citing works
Quantile Regression
Koenker, R. W. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511754098 · Cited by 4,956 · see citing works
Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures
(2004) · Technometrics · doi:10.1198/tech.2004.s209 · Cited by 4,664 · see citing works
Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828042002561 · Cited by 4,504 · see citing works
Bayesian model averaging: a tutorial (with comments by M. Clyde, David Draper and E. I. George, and a rejoinder by the authors
Hoeting, J. A., Madigan, D., Raftery, A. E., & Volinsky, C. T. (1999) · Statistical Science · doi:10.1214/ss/1009212519 · Cited by 4,118 · cited 21× · see citing works
“The classic inferential approach is the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition (Blinder, 1973; Oaxaca, 1973) of the mean difference in log wages of different groups 9 See, for example, Koenker (2005). based on regression models in a counterfactual manner.”
MethodInfluential
Fairness through awareness
Dwork, C., Hardt, M., Pitassi, T., Reingold, O., & Zemel, R. (2012) · Proceedings of the 3rd Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science Conference · doi:10.1145/2090236.2090255 · Cited by 3,501 · see citing works
Handbook of Labor Economics
Harrison, A. J., Robinson, C., Ashenfelter, O., & Layard, R. (1989) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.2307/135687 · Cited by 3,321 · see citing works
The Statistical Theory of Racism and Sexism.
Phelps, E. S. (1972) · American Economic Review · Cited by 3,305 · see citing works
Some Effects of Proportions on Group Life: Skewed Sex Ratios and Responses to Token Women
Kanter, R. M. (1977) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/226425 · Cited by 3,154 · see citing works
Hierarchical Linear Models
Gill, J. (2005) · Encyclopedia of Social Measurement · doi:10.1016/b0-12-369398-5/00166-3 · Cited by 3,126 · see citing works
An Introduction to Spatial Econometrics
LeSage, J. P. (2008) · Revue d économie industrielle · doi:10.4000/rei.3887 · Cited by 3,040 · see citing works
What Do Laboratory Experiments Measuring Social Preferences Reveal About the Real World?
Levitt, S. D., & List, J. A. (2007) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.21.2.153 · Cited by 2,668 · see citing works
Causal inference in statistics: An overview
Pearl, J. (2009) · Statistics Surveys · doi:10.1214/09-ss057 · Cited by 2,336 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Tsao and Pearlman (2010) study firm and consumer discrimination against young black physicians using data from a survey of more than 6,000 physicians.”
BackgroundMethod
Field Experiments
Harrison, G. W., & List, J. A. (2004) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/0022051043004577 · Cited by 2,282 · see citing works
Causal Inference Using Potential Outcomes: Design, Modeling, Decisions
Rubin, D. B. (2005) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214504000001880 · Cited by 2,173 · see citing works
Categorical Data Analysis
(2010) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412961288.n40 · Cited by 2,028 · see citing works
THE THEORY OF DISCRIMINATION
Arrow, K. J. (2015) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400867066-003 · Cited by 1,869 · see citing works
The Blinder–Oaxaca Decomposition for Linear Regression Models
Jann, B. (2008) · The Stata Journal Promoting communications on statistics and Stata · doi:10.1177/1536867x0800800401 · Cited by 1,867 · see citing works
The Economics of Discrimination
Becker, G. S. (1971) · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226041049.001.0001 · Cited by 1,794 · see citing works
Handbook of labor economics
(1988) · Journal of Macroeconomics · doi:10.1016/0164-0704(88)90073-0 · Cited by 1,778 · see citing works
Orchestrating Impartiality: The Impact of “Blind” Auditions on Female Musicians
Goldin, C. D., & Rouse, C. E. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.715 · Cited by 1,727 · see citing works
On discrimination and the decomposition of wage differentials
Oaxaca, R. L., & Ransom, M. R. (1994) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/0304-4076(94)90074-4 · Cited by 1,683 · see citing works
Multilevel Statistical Models
Goldstein, H. (2010) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/9780470973394 · Cited by 1,581 · see citing works
Tobit models: A survey
Amemiya, T. (1984) · Journal of Econometrics · doi:10.1016/0304-4076(84)90074-5 · Cited by 1,554 · see citing works
Statistical Theories of Discrimination in Labor Markets
Aigner, D. J., & Cain, G. G. (1977) · ILR Review · doi:10.1177/001979397703000204 · Cited by 1,503 · see citing works
Gender Differences in Pay
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2000) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.14.4.75 · Cited by 1,467 · see citing works
Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for Black and White patients
Green, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Iezzoni, L. I., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5 · Cited by 1,460 · see citing works
Interactive spatial data analysis
Agterberg, F. P. (1996) · Computers & Geosciences · doi:10.1016/s0098-3004(96)80468-7 · Cited by 1,360 · see citing works
Nepotism and sexism in peer-review
Wennerås, C., & Wold, A. E. (1997) · Nature · doi:10.1038/387341a0 · Cited by 1,346 · see citing works
The Role of Premarket Factors in Black-White Wage Differences
Neal, D. A., & Johnson, W. R. (1996) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/262045 · Cited by 1,340 · see citing works
Data preprocessing techniques for classification without discrimination
Kamiran, F., & Calders, T. (2012) · Knowledge and Information Systems · doi:10.1007/s10115-011-0463-8 · Cited by 1,305 · see citing works
Social Networks and Labor-Market Outcomes: Toward an Economic Analysis
Montgomery, J. D. (1991) · American Economic Review · Cited by 1,132 · see citing works
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
Kathree, F. (1995) · South African Journal on Human Rights · doi:10.1080/02587203.1995.11827574 · Cited by 1,123 · see citing works
Understanding current causes of women's underrepresentation in science
Ceci, S. J., & Williams, W. M. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1014871108 · Cited by 1,114 · see citing works
An extension of the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition technique to logit and probit models
Fairlie, R. W. (2005) · Journal of Economic and Social Measurement · doi:10.3233/jem-2005-0259 · Cited by 1,096 · see citing works
Job Information Networks, Neighborhood Effects, and Inequality
Ioannides, Y. M., & Loury, L. D. (2004) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/0022051043004595 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
The Effects of Social Networks on Employment and Inequality
Calvó‐Armengol, A., & Jackson, M. O. (2004) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/0002828041464542 · Cited by 1,057 · see citing works
Employers' Discriminatory Behavior and the Estimation of Wage Discrimination
Neumark, D. (1988) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.2307/145830 · Cited by 1,051 · see citing works
Using the Longitudinal Structure of Earnings to Estimate the Effect of Training Programs
Ashenfelter, O., & Card, D. (1985) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.2307/1924810 · Cited by 1,023 · see citing works
Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment
Pager, D., Bonikowski, B., & Western, B. (2009) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240907400505 · Cited by 1,022 · see citing works
Mortgage Lending in Boston: Interpreting HMDA Data
Munnell, A. H., Tootell, G. M. B., Browne, L. E., & McEneaney, J. P. (1992) · American Economic Review · Cited by 996 · see citing works
An Introduction to Generalized Linear Models
Dobson, A. J., & Barnett, A. G. (2008) · doi:10.1201/9780367807849 · Cited by 948 · see citing works
Discrimination in a Segmented Society: An Experimental Approach
Fershtman, C., & Uri Gneezy, B. (2001) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355301556338 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination
Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (2001) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355301556329 · Cited by 923 · see citing works
Handbook of Parametric and Nonparametric Statistical Procedures
Sheskin, D. J. (1996) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203489536 · Cited by 914 · see citing works
2. Measures of Multigroup Segregation
Reardon, S. F., & Firebaugh, G. (2002) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.1111/1467-9531.00110 · Cited by 912 · see citing works
Field Experiments of Discrimination in the Market Place
Riach, P. A., & Rich, J. (2002) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/1468-0297.00080 · Cited by 911 · see citing works
Using the Longitudinal Structure of Earnings to Estimate the Effect of Training Programs
Ashenfelter, O., & Card, D. (1984) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w1489 · Cited by 885 · see citing works
An Analysis of the New York City Police Department's “Stop-and-Frisk” Policy in the Context of Claims of Racial Bias
Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214506000001040 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics
(2008) · doi:10.1057/02.2008.978-0-333-78676-5 · Cited by 873 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models and Extensions
Hardin, J. W., & Hilbe, J. M. (2012) · Cited by 853 · see citing works
On the Decomposition of Wage Differentials
Cotton, J. (1988) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.2307/1928307 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
Detecting Discrimination
Heckman, J. J. (1998) · Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.101 · Cited by 824 · see citing works
Will Affirmative Action Policies Eliminate Negative Stereotypes
Coate, S., & Loury, G. C. (1992) · American Economic Review · Cited by 816 · see citing works
Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations
Greenwald, A. G., & Krieger, L. H. (2006) · California Law Review · doi:10.2307/20439056 · Cited by 808 · see citing works
Prejudice: Its Social Psychology
Campbell, C., & Brown, R. J. (1997) · British Journal of Sociology · doi:10.2307/591756 · Cited by 789 · see citing works
Handbook of Social Economics
Benhabib, J., Bisin, A., & Jackson, M. O. (2011) · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Employers’ discriminatory behavior and the estimation of wage discrimination
(2004) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203799918-12 · Cited by 788 · see citing works
Three naive Bayes approaches for discrimination-free classification.
Calders, T., & Verwer, S. (2010) · Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1007/s10618-010-0190-x · Cited by 764 · see citing works
Discrimination in the Small-Business Credit Market
Blanchflower, D. G., Levine, P. B., & Zimmerman, D. J. (2003) · Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465303772815835 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
Decomposition Methods in Economics
Fortin, N. M., Lemieux, T., & FIRPO, S. P. (2010) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w16045 · Cited by 746 · see citing works
Beauty and the Labor Market
Hamermesh, D. S., & Biddle, J. E. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4518 · Cited by 721 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of the International Gender Wage Gap
Weichselbaumer, D., & Winter‐Ebmer, R. (2005) · Journal of Economic Surveys · doi:10.1111/j.0950-0804.2005.00256.x · Cited by 710 · see citing works
Prejudice: its social psychology
(1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-5980 · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Why Beauty Matters
Möbius, M., & Rosenblat, T. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282806776157515 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
Fairness-Aware Classifier with Prejudice Remover Regularizer
Kamishima, T., Akaho, S., Asoh, H., & Sakuma, J. (2012) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33486-3_3 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Racial Segregation and the American Foreclosure Crisis
Rugh, J. S., & Massey, D. S. (2010) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/0003122410380868 · Cited by 686 · see citing works
Discrimination-aware data mining
Pedreshi, D., Ruggieri, S., & Turini, F. (2008) · Proceedings of the 14th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining · doi:10.1145/1401890.1401959 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Self-citation
Sex Bias in Graduate Admissions: Data from Berkeley: Measuring bias is harder than is usually assumed, and the evidence is sometimes contrary to expectation.
Bickel, P. J., Hammel, E. A., & O'Connell, J. W. (1975) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.187.4175.398 · Cited by 659 · see citing works
Test statistics and sample size formulae for comparative binomial trials with null hypothesis of non‐zero risk difference or non‐unity relative risk
Farrington, P., & Manning, G. (1990) · Statistics in Medicine · doi:10.1002/sim.4780091208 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review.
Crosby, F. J., Bromley, S., & Saxe, L. (1980) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.87.3.546 · Cited by 653 · see citing works
Walking the Talk? What Employers Say Versus What They Do
Pager, D., & Quillian, L. (2005) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240507000301 · Cited by 640 · see citing works
What's in a Picture?: Evidence of Discrimination from Prosper.com
Pope, D. G., & Sydnor, J. (2010) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.3368/jhr.46.1.53 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
A Computationally Practical Simulation Estimator for Panel Data
Keane, M. P. (1994) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/2951477 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination
Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (1997) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w6279 · Cited by 616 · see citing works
New Approaches to Understanding Racial Prejudice and Discrimination
Quillian, L. (2006) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.32.061604.123132 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Racial Bias in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence
Knowles, J., Persico, N., & Todd, P. (2001) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/318603 · Cited by 608 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1995) · American Economic Review · Cited by 604 · see citing works
Implicit Discrimination
Bertrand, M., Chugh, D., & Mullainathan, S. (2005) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282805774670365 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Hierarchical Linear Models
Roberts, J. K. (2007) · The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology · doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosh029 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Residential preferences and neighborhood racial segregation: A test of the schelling segregation model
Clark, W. A. V. (1991) · Demography · doi:10.2307/2061333 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
Simple and Effective Confidence Intervals for Proportions and Differences of Proportions Result from Adding Two Successes and Two Failures
Agresti, A., & Caffo, B. S. (2000) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.2000.10474560 · Cited by 571 · see citing works
Handbook of law and economics
(2007) · Cited by 567 · see citing works
Evidence of ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labor market using experimental data
Carlsson, M., & Rooth, D.-O. (2007) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2007.05.001 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Discrimination in Labor Markets.
Stoikov, V., Ashenfelter, O., & Rees, A. (1975) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.2307/2521858 · Cited by 553 · see citing works
Entrepreneurs' gender and financial constraints: Evidence from international data
Muravyev, A., Talavera, O., & Schäfer, D. (2008) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2008.12.001 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
The Sports Business as a Labor Market Laboratory
Kahn, L. M. (2000) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.14.3.75 · Cited by 538 · see citing works
Decomposing differences in the first moment
Yun, M. (2003) · Economics Letters · doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2003.09.008 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Ethnic Discrimination in Germany’s Labour Market: A Field Experiment
Kaas, L., & Manger, C. (2012) · German Economic Review · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0475.2011.00538.x · Cited by 509 · see citing works
The economic analysis of labor market discrimination: A surveyPreprint
Cain, G. G. (1987) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 509 · see citing works
Generalized Linear Models and Extensions
Kateri, M. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-8176-4811-4_5 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
The Use of Field Experiments for Studies of Employment Discrimination: Contributions, Critiques, and Directions for the Future
Pager, D. (2006) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/0002716206294796 · Cited by 500 · see citing works
Competition, Small Business Financing, and Discrimination: Evidence from a New Survey
Cavalluzzo, K. S., Cavalluzzo, L. C., & Wolken, J. D. (2002) · The Journal of Business · doi:10.1086/341638 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Importing Equality? The Impact of Globalization on Gender Discrimination
Black, S. E., & Brainerd, E. L. (2002) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.1177/001979390405700404 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Measures of Segregation
James, D. R., & Taeuber, K. E. (1985) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/270845 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
The Nature and Extent of Discrimination in the Marketplace: Evidence from the Field
List, J. A. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355304772839524 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
The Division of Spoils: Rent-Sharing and Discrimination in a Regulated Industry
Black, S. E., & Strahan, P. E. (2001) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.91.4.814 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Prejudice and Wages: An Empirical Assessment of Becker’s The Economics of Discrimination
Charles, K. K., & Guryan, J. (2008) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/593073 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Interactive Spatial Data Analysis.
Palmer, M. W., Bailey, T., & Gatrell, A. C. (1996) · Ecology · doi:10.2307/2265559 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Spatial Regression Models
Ward, M. D., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2008) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412985888 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination
Kite, M. E., & E.Whitley, J. B. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315623849 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations
Greenwald, A. G. (2006) · bepress Legal Repository · doi:10.15779/z38gh7f · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Spatial Regression Models
Ward, M. D., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2019) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781071802588 · Cited by 403 · see citing works
The State of Research on Racial/Ethnic Discrimination in The Receipt of Health Care
Shavers, V. L., Fagan, P., Jones, D., Klein, W. M. P., Boyington, J., Moten, C., & Rorie, E. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.300773 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Plane Answers to Complex Questions
Christensen, R. (2020) · Springer texts in statistics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-32097-3 · Cited by 367 · see citing works
Perceived Criminality, Criminal Background Checks, and the Racial Hiring Practices of Employers
Holzer, H. J., Raphael, S. P., & Stoll, M. A. (2006) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/501089 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Racial Discrimination in the Labor Market: Theory and Empirics
Lang, K., & Lehmann, J.-Y. K. (2012) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.50.4.959 · Cited by 365 · see citing works
Discrimination in the rental housing market: A field experiment on the Internet
Ahmed, A. M., & Hammarstedt, M. (2008) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2008.02.004 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
The Speed of Employer Learning
Lange, F. (2006) · Journal of Labor Economics · doi:10.1086/508730 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Introduction to Generalized Linear Models
Agresti, A. (2002) · Wiley series in probability and statistics · doi:10.1002/0471249688.ch4 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Gender differences in grant peer review: A meta-analysis
BORNMANN, L., MUTZ, R., & DANIEL, H. (2007) · Journal of Informetrics · doi:10.1016/j.joi.2007.03.001 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Beauty, gender and stereotypes: Evidence from laboratory experiments
James Andreoni, A., & Petrie, R. (2007) · Journal of Economic Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.joep.2007.07.008 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Networks in labor markets: Wage and employment dynamics and inequality
Calvó‐Armengol, A., & Jackson, M. O. (2005) · Journal of Economic Theory · doi:10.1016/j.jet.2005.07.007 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Sexual orientation discrimination in the labour market
Drydakis, N. (2009) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2008.12.003 · Cited by 322 · see citing works
Globalization and the Gender Wage Gap
Oostendorp, R. H. (2009) · The World Bank Economic Review · doi:10.1093/wber/lhn022 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1993) · Cited by 314 · see citing works
A Methodology for Direct and Indirect Discrimination Prevention in Data Mining
Hajian, S., & Domingo-Ferrer, J. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering · doi:10.1109/tkde.2012.72 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Discrimination Aware Decision Tree Learning
Kamiran, F., Calders, T., & Pechenizkiy, M. (2010) · 2010 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining · doi:10.1109/icdm.2010.50 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Decision Theory for Discrimination-Aware Classification
Kamiran, F., Karim, A., & Zhang, X. (2012) · 2012 IEEE 12th International Conference on Data Mining · doi:10.1109/icdm.2012.45 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Improving the peer-review process for grant applications - reliability, validity, bias, and generalizability.
Marsh, H. W., Jayasinghe, U. W., & Bond, N. W. (2008) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.3.160 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
An Alternative Test of Racial Prejudice in Motor Vehicle Searches: Theory and Evidence
Anwar, S., & Fang, H. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282806776157579 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
A Measure of Segregation Based on Social Interactions
Echenique, F., & Fryer, R. G. (2007) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/qjec.122.2.441 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Are Gay Men and Lesbians Discriminated against in the Hiring Process?
Ahmed, A. M., Andersson, L., & Hammarstedt, M. (2012) · Southern Economic Journal · doi:10.4284/0038-4038-2011.317 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
THE FOOTBALL PLAYERS' LABOR MARKET: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE MAJOR EUROPEAN LEAGUES
(2007) · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9485.2007.00423.x · Cited by 279 · see citing works
The Color of Credit
Ross, S. L., & Yinger, J. M. (2002) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/1933.001.0001 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Discrimination in Metropolitan Housing Markets: National Results from Phase I of HDS2000
Turner, M. A., Ross, S. L., Galster, G., & Ýinger, J. (2002) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e717912011-001 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(2012) · CQ Press eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781452241067.n3 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
The Gender Gap in NIH Grant Applications
Ley, T. J., & Hamilton, B. H. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1165878 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Use of Black English and Racial Discrimination in Urban Housing Markets
Massey, D. S., & Lundy, G. F. (2001) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/10780870122184957 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Recent Developments in the Economics of Price Discrimination
Armstrong, M. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139052276.006 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Microfinance and Gender: Is There a Glass Ceiling on Loan Size?
Agier, I., & Szafarz, A. (2012) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.06.016 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
An extension of the Blinder–Oaxaca decomposition to nonlinear models
Bauer, T., & Sinning, M. (2008) · AStA Advances in Statistical Analysis · doi:10.1007/s10182-008-0056-3 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
k-NN as an implementation of situation testing for discrimination discovery and prevention
Luong, B. T., Ruggieri, S., & Turini, F. (2011) · Proceedings of the 17th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining · doi:10.1145/2020408.2020488 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Self-citation
Testing for Racial Profiling in Traffic Stops From Behind a Veil of Darkness
Grogger, J., & Ridgeway, G. (2006) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214506000000168 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
The color of credit: mortgage discrimination, research methodology, and fair-lending enforcement
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-2296 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Evidence on Discrimination in Consumer Markets
Ýinger, J. (1998) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.12.2.23 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Education and Labor Market Discrimination
Lang, K., & Manove, M. (2011) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.101.4.1467 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Discrimination in Professional Sports: A Survey of the Literature
Kahn, L. M. (1991) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.1177/001979399104400301 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Do landlords discriminate in the rental housing market? Evidence from an internet field experiment in US cities
Hanson, A., & Hawley, Z. B. (2011) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2011.02.003 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Data mining for discrimination discovery
Ruggieri, S., Pedreschi, D., & Turini, F. (2010) · TKDD · doi:10.1145/1754428.1754432 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Self-citation
Advances in Group Processes
Lawler, E. J., & Thye, S. R. (2000) · Advances in group processes · doi:10.1016/s0882-6145(2000)17 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Lab labor: What can labor economists learn from the lab
Kuhn, P., & Charness, G. B. (2011) · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Theory and racial profiling: Shortcomings and future directions in research
ENGEL, R. S., Cherkauskas, J. C., & Bernard, T. J. (2002) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820200095231 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Customer Racial Discrimination in the Market for Memorabilia: The Case of Baseball
Nardinelli, C., & Simon, C. J. (1990) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/2937891 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Discrimination, Nepotism, and Long-Run Wage Differentials
Goldberg, M. S. (1982) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/1880760 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Sociology. Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life
Caradec, V., & Newman, D. P. (1996) · Revue Française de Sociologie · doi:10.2307/3322101 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Do lenders discriminate against minority and woman entrepreneurs?
Blanchard, L. A., Zhao, B., & Ýinger, J. (2007) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2007.03.001 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Obesity, Attractiveness, and Differential Treatment in Hiring: A Field Experiment
Rooth, D. (2009) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.1353/jhr.2009.0027 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Customer Discrimination and Employment Outcomes for Minority Workers
Holzer, H. J., & Ihlanfeldt, K. R. (1998) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1162/003355398555766 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
The Neighborhood Distribution of Subprime Mortgage Lending
Calem, P. S., Gillen, K. C., & Wächter, S. M. (2004) · The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics · doi:10.1023/b:real.0000044020.67401.51 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
The Complexities and Processes of Racial Housing Discrimination
Roscigno, V. J., Karafin, D. L., & Tester, G. (2009) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2009.56.1.49 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Information and discrimination in the rental housing market: Evidence from a field experiment
Bosch, M., Carnero, M. A., & Farré, L. (2010) · Regional Science and Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2009.11.001 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Anti-Discrimination Law and the European Union
Bell, M. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199244508.001.0001 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
EU Anti-Discrimination Law
Ellis, E., & Watson, P. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199698462.001.0001 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Labor market discrimination in Delhi: Evidence from a field experiment
Banerjee, A., Bertrand, M., Datta, S., & Mullainathan, S. (2008) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2008.09.002 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Dealer Price Discrimination in New Car Purchases: Evidence from the Consumer Expenditure Survey
Goldberg, P. K. (1996) · Journal of Political Economy · doi:10.1086/262035 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
An Experimental Investigation of Sexual Discrimination in Hiring in the English Labor Market
Riach, P. A., & Rich, J. (2006) · The B E Journal of Economic Analysis & Policy · doi:10.2202/1538-0637.1416 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Access to Credit by Small Businesses: How Relevant Are Race, Ethnicity, and Gender?
Asiedu, E., Freeman, J. A., & Nti-Addae, A. (2012) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.102.3.532 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Beyond Signaling and Human Capital: Education and the Revelation of Ability
Arcidiacono, P. S., Bayer, P. J., & Hizmo, A. (2010) · American Economic Journal Applied Economics · doi:10.1257/app.2.4.76 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Race and gender in the labor marketPreprint
Altonji, J. G., & Blank, R. M. (1999) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Disability and the labour market: a review of the empirical evidence
JONES, M. K. (2008) · Journal of Economic Studies · doi:10.1108/01443580810903554 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Persistent nepotism in peer-review
Sandström, U., & Hällsten, M. (2007) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-008-0211-3 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Redlining Revisited: Mortgage Lending Patterns in Sacramento 1930–2004
Hernández, J. F. (2009) · International Journal of Urban and Regional Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2009.00873.x · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Affirmative Action Around the World
Sowell, T. (2017) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.12987/9780300128352 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Assessing the Effect of Race Bias in Post-traffic Stop Outcomes Using Propensity Scores
Ridgeway, G. (2006) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-005-9000-9 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Mortgage Lending Discrimination: A Review of Existing Evidence
Turner, M. A., & Skidmore, F. (1999) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e721552011-001 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Measuring Discrimination in Socially-Sensitive Decision Records
Pedreschi, D., Ruggieri, S., & Turini, F. (2009) · SIAM International Conference on Data Mining · doi:10.1137/1.9781611972795.50 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Self-citation
Gender effects in the peer reviews of grant proposals: a comprehensive meta-analysis comparing traditional and multilevel approaches
Marsh, H. W., Bornmann, L., Mutz, R., Daniel, H.-D., & O’Mara, A. (2009) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654309334143 · Cited by 174 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The subsequent study by Marsh (2009), using multilevel regression, revised the conclusion for research grant applications, but it remained the same for fellowship applications.”
Method
Testing Theories of Discrimination: Evidence from Weakest Link
Levitt, S. D. (2004) · The Journal of Law and Economics · doi:10.1086/425591 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Plane Answers to Complex Questions
Christensen, R. (2002) · Springer texts in statistics · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-21544-0 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Reference Manual on Scientific Evidence
National Research Council (2011) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/13163 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
A Test of Racial Bias in Capital Sentencing
Alesina, A., & Ferrara, E. L. (2014) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.104.11.3397 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Studying Discrimination: Fundamental Challenges and Recent Progress
Charles, K. K., & Guryan, J. (2011) · Annual Review of Economics · doi:10.1146/annurev.economics.102308.124448 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Affirmative action: What do we know?
Holzer, H. J., & Neumark, D. (2006) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20181 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Race, redlining, and residential mortgage loan performance
Berkovec, J. A., Canner, G. B., Gabriel, S. A., et al. (1994) · The Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics · doi:10.1007/bf01099279 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Do employers discriminate by gender? A field experiment in female-dominated occupations
Booth, A., & Leigh, A. (2010) · Economics Letters · doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.034 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Theories of Statistical Discrimination and Affirmative Action: A Survey
Fang, H., & Moro, A. (2010) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w15860 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination
(2009) · doi:10.5040/9798216002802 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
A Model of Redlining
Lang, W. W., & Nakamura, L. I. (1993) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1006/juec.1993.1014 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Workers and their wages: changing patterns in the United States
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.30-0427 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Ethnic discrimination in the Italian rental housing market
Baldini, M., & Federici, M. (2011) · Journal of Housing Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhe.2011.02.003 · Cited by 155 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Rather than being an explanatory variable, prior knowledge has the effect of perpetuating the vicious cycle of discrimination described in Section 2.3.”
BackgroundInfluential
Market Forces and Sex Discrimination
Hellerstein, J. K., Neumark, D., & Troske, K. R. (1997) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w6321 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
A general equilibrium model of statistical discrimination
Moro, A., & Norman, P. (2004) · ARCA (Università Ca' Foscari Venezia) · doi:10.1016/s0022-0531(03)00165-0 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Deceptive Field Experiments of Discrimination: Are they Ethical?
Riach, P. A., & Rich, J. (2004) · Kyklos · doi:10.1111/j.0023-5962.2004.00262.x · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Discrimination, Competition, and Loan Performance in FHA Mortgage Lending
Berkovec, J. A., Canner, G. B., Gabriel, S. A., et al. (1998) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465398557483 · Cited by 150 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

A Survey on Bias and Fairness in Machine Learning
Mehrabi, N., Morstatter, F., Saxena, N., Lerman, K., & Galstyan, A. (2022) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3457607 · Cited by 5,812 · see citing works
The ethics of algorithms: Mapping the debate
Mittelstadt, B. D., Allo, P., Taddeo, M., Wachter, S., & Floridi, L. (2016) · Big Data & Society · doi:10.1177/2053951716679679 · Cited by 3,432 · see citing works
“However, proxies for protected attributes are not easy to predict or detect (Romei and Ruggieri, 2014; Zarsky, 2016), particularly when algorithms access linked datasets (Barocas and Selbst, 2015).”
Influential
Fair prediction with disparate impact: a study of bias in recidivism prediction instruments
Chouldechova, A. (2017) · Big Data · doi:10.1089/big.2016.0047 · Cited by 2,159 · see citing works
Certifying and Removing Disparate Impact
Feldman, M., Friedler, S. A., Moeller, J., Scheidegger, C., & Venkatasubramanian, S. (2015) · Proceedings of the 21th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining · doi:10.1145/2783258.2783311 · Cited by 1,827 · see citing works
Algorithmic Decision Making and the Cost of Fairness
Corbett-Davies, S., Pierson, E., Feller, A., Goel, S., & Huq, A. (2017) · Proceedings of the 23rd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining · doi:10.1145/3097983.3098095 · Cited by 1,149 · see citing works
Inherent trade-offs in the fair determination of risk scores
Kleinberg, J., Mullainathan, S., & Raghavan, M. (2017) · Schloss Dagstuhl – Leibniz-Zentrum für Informatik · doi:10.4230/lipics.itcs.2017.43 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
“Barocas and Selbst survey a range of ways in which data-analysis algorithms can lead to discriminatory outcomes [3], and review articles by Romei and Ruggieri [25] and Zliobaite [30] survey data-analytic and algorithmic methods for measuring discrimination.”
Background
Fair, Transparent, and Accountable Algorithmic Decision-making Processes: The Premise, the Proposed Solutions, and the Open Challenges
Lepri, B., Oliver, N., Letouzé, E., Pentland, A., & Vinck, P. (2018) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-017-0279-x · Cited by 709 · see citing works
Fairness Beyond Disparate Treatment & Disparate Impact: Learning Classification without Disparate Mistreatment
Zafar, M. B., Valera, I., Gomez Rodriguez, M., & Gummadi, K. P. (2017) · Proceedings of the 26th International Conference on World Wide Web · doi:10.1145/3038912.3052660 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
A comparative study of fairness-enhancing interventions in machine learning
Friedler, S. A., Scheidegger, C., Venkatasubramanian, S., Choudhary, S., Hamilton, E. P., & Roth, D. (2019) · Proceedings of the Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3287560.3287589 · Cited by 601 · see citing works
Fairness in machine learning: A survey
Caton, S., & Haas, C. (2024) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3616865 · Cited by 646 · see citing works
Bias and Discrimination in AI: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective
Ferrer, X., Nuenen, T. V., Such, J. M., Cote, M., & Criado, N. (2021) · IEEE Technology and Society Magazine · doi:10.1109/mts.2021.3056293 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
“The main issues in trials related to discrimination consist of determining [20]: 1) the relevant population affected by the discrimination case, and to which groups it should be compared; 2) the discrimination measure that formalizes group under-representation, e.”
Background
The relationship between trust in AI and trustworthy machine learning technologies
Toreini, E., Aitken, M., Coopamootoo, K., Elliott, K., Zelaya, C. G., & van Moorsel, A. (2020) · Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3351095.3372834 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Measuring discrimination in algorithmic decision making
Žliobaitė, I. (2017) · Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1007/s10618-017-0506-1 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Auditing black-box models for indirect influence
Adler, P., Falk, C., Friedler, S. A., Nix, T., Rybeck, G., Scheidegger, C., Smith, B., & Venkatasubramanian, S. (2018) · Knowledge and Information Systems · doi:10.1007/s10115-017-1116-3 · Cited by 280 · see citing works
Algorithmic Decision-Making Based on Machine Learning from Big Data: Can Transparency Restore Accountability?
de Laat, P. B. (2018) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-017-0293-z · Cited by 251 · see citing works
On the (im)possibility of fairness
Friedler, S. A., Scheidegger, C., & Venkatasubramanian, S. (2016) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1609.07236 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Data Lifecycle Challenges in Production Machine Learning: A Survey
Polyzotis, N., Roy, S., Whang, S. E., & Zinkevich, M. (2018) · ACM SIGMOD Record · doi:10.1145/3299887.3299891 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
A Survey of Methods for Explaining Black Box Models
Guidotti, R., Monreale, A., Ruggieri, S., Turini, F., Giannotti, F., & Pedreschi, D. (2019) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3236009 · Cited by 629 · see citing works
“The first principle requires that the model guarantees the protection of groups against (direct or indirect) discrimination [100]; while the second one requires that the model does not reveal sensitive information about people [4].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Conscientious Classification: A Data Scientist's Guide to Discrimination-Aware Classification
d'Alessandro, B., O'Neil, C., & LaGatta, T. (2017) · Big Data · doi:10.1089/big.2016.0048 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
A Unified Approach to Quantifying Algorithmic Unfairness: Measuring Individual &Group Unfairness via Inequality Indices
Speicher, T., Heidari, H., Grgic-Hlaca, N., Gummadi, K. P., Singla, A., Weller, A., & Zafar, M. B. (2018) · Proceedings of the 24th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery & Data Mining · doi:10.1145/3219819.3220046 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Beyond bias and discrimination: redefining the AI ethics principle of fairness in healthcare machine-learning algorithms
Giovanola, B., & Tiribelli, S. (2023) · AI & SOCIETY · doi:10.1007/s00146-022-01455-6 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
From individual to group privacy in big data analytics
Mittelstadt, B. (2017) · Philosophy & Technology · doi:10.1007/s13347-017-0253-7 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
An algorithm for removing sensitive information: Application to race-independent recidivism prediction
Johndrow, J. E., & Lum, K. (2019) · The Annals of Applied Statistics · doi:10.1214/18-aoas1201 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Fairness in Machine Learning: A Survey
Caton, S., & Haas, C. (2020) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2010.04053 · Cited by 646 · see citing works
Adaptive Sensitive Reweighting to Mitigate Bias in Fairness-aware Classification
Krasanakis, E., Spyromitros-Xioufis, E., Papadopoulos, S., & Kompatsiaris, Y. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 World Wide Web Conference on World Wide Web - WWW '18 · doi:10.1145/3178876.3186133 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Using sensitive personal data may be necessary for avoiding discrimination in data-driven decision models
Žliobaitė, I., & Custers, B. (2016) · Artificial Intelligence and Law · doi:10.1007/s10506-016-9182-5 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
AdaFair: Cumulative Fairness Adaptive Boosting
Iosifidis, V., & Ntoutsi, E. (2019) · Proceedings of the 28th ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management · doi:10.1145/3357384.3357974 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Automated Decision-Making and Big Data: Concerns for People With Mental Illness
Monteith, S., & Glenn, T. (2016) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0746-6 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
The Discriminating (Pricing) Actuary
Frees, E. W. (., & Huang, F. (2023) · North American Actuarial Journal · doi:10.1080/10920277.2021.1951296 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
A survey on datasets for fairness‐aware machine learning
Le Quy, T., Roy, A., Iosifidis, V., Zhang, W., & Ntoutsi, E. (2022) · WIREs Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1002/widm.1452 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Accuracy and Fairness for Juvenile Justice Risk Assessments
Berk, R. (2019) · Journal of Empirical Legal Studies · doi:10.1111/jels.12206 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Anti-discrimination learning: a causal modeling-based framework
Zhang, L., & Wu, X. (2017) · International Journal of Data Science and Analytics · doi:10.1007/s41060-017-0058-x · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Better decision support through exploratory discrimination-aware data mining: foundations and empirical evidence
Berendt, B., & Preibusch, S. (2014) · Artificial Intelligence and Law · doi:10.1007/s10506-013-9152-0 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Fairness in representation: quantifying stereotyping as a representational harm
Abbasi, M., Friedler, S. A., Scheidegger, C., & Venkatasubramanian, S. (2019) · Proceedings of the 2019 SIAM International Conference on Data Mining · doi:10.1137/1.9781611975673.90 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“The literature on algorithmic fairness has for the most part focused on bias caused by skew in training data distributions and the training process itself, and has quantiﬁed the bias in terms of fairness measures that are typically outcome-based (see, e.g., [7, 19, 39, 24] and surveys [29, 37]).”
Background
Toward Accountable Discrimination-Aware Data Mining: The Importance of Keeping the Human in the Loop—and Under the Looking Glass
Berendt, B., & Preibusch, S. (2017) · Big Data · doi:10.1089/big.2016.0055 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
A step toward building a unified framework for managing AI bias
Rana, S. A., Azizul, Z. H., & Awan, A. A. (2023) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.1630 · Cited by 23 · see citing works

Does Being In-Person Matter? Demonstrating the Feasibility and Reliability of Fully Remote Observational Data Collection
Basha, S. A. J., Cai, Q., Lee, S. S., Tran, T., Majerle, A., Tiede, S., & Gewirtz, A. H. (2024) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-024-01706-6 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Observation: a valuable data collection strategy for research with children.
Lobo, M. L. (1992) · PubMed · Cited by 4 · see citing works
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH: A TOOL FOR COLLECTING BEHAVIORAL DATA AND VALIDATING SURVEYS
Godwin, S., & Chambers, E. (2009) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Direct observation
Rolfe, S. A. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003115397-18 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A comparison of self-reported and observational work sampling techniques for measuring time in nursing tasks
Ampt, A. J., Westbrook, J. I., Creswick, N. J., & Mallock, N. A. (2007) · Journal of Health Services Research & Policy · doi:10.1258/135581907779497576 · Cited by 149 · see citing works

Authors: Romei, A., & Ruggieri, S.
Affiliations: University of Pisa (IT)
ORCID: Romei, Andrea
Ruggieri, Salvatore
Venue: The Knowledge Engineering Review
Publisher: Maximum Academic Press
Published: 2013-04-03
Volume: 29
Issue: 5
Pages: 582-638
ISSN: 0269-8889 (ISSN-L)
1469-8005
DOI: 10.1017/s0269888913000039
OpenAlex: W2166454173
Semantic Scholar: b0d3968e7a630d3661cd0878acc38c85f1828a9c
Cited by: 288
References: 442
Citations by year: 2026: 4 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 3
FWCI: 29.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified)
Locations: The Knowledge Engineering Review (publishedVersion)
UnipiEprints Open Archive (Università di Pisa) (acceptedVersion)
CINECA IRIS Institutial research information system (University of Pisa) (submittedVersion)
ISTI Open Portal (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
Social Sciences › Law › Discrimination and Equality Law
Keywords: discrimination analysis, anti-discrimination, observational studies, quasi-experimental design, experimental study, knowledge discovery, labor economics, social profiling, consumer market

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

A multidisciplinary survey on discrimination analysis

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks