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Cited by 74Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorForgiveness and Related BehaviorsExperimental Behavioral Economics Studies

Oxytocin makes females, but not males, less forgiving following betrayal of trust

Open access
Yao, Shuxia, Zhao, Weihua, Cheng, Rui, Geng, Yayuan, Luo, Lizhu, Kendrick, Keith M.·2014·The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
DOI 10.1017/s146114571400090x
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Abstract

Although oxytocin has been shown to enhance trust behavior, to date no study has directly established whether oxytocin can modulate the effect of repair strategies on restoring damaged trust. In the current double-blind, between-subjects, placebo-controlled design study, two repair strategies were used to examine the effect of intranasal oxytocin administration on modulating trust restoration in a revised trust game. The results showed that although oxytocin had no overall effect on modulating trust restoration, it did have a significant gender specific effect. Female subjects showed less evidence for trust repair in the oxytocin compared with the placebo treatment group. This suggests that oxytocin may make female subjects exhibit more punitive behavior towards partners who violate their trust and less sensitive to repair strategies provided by them. Interestingly, this gender specific effect was more evident in the context of attempted trust repair using financial compensation. However, it also extended to both apology alone and no compensation conditions, but not to the fair one, in females exhibiting high trait forgiveness. Thus females with a more forgiving attitude towards betrayal may actually be more likely to punish betrayal following oxytocin treatment.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a double-blind placebo-controlled trust game, intranasal oxytocin did not alter trust restoration overall, but it reduced trust repair in females, not males, after betrayal. The effect was strongest for financial compensation and extended to apology and no-compensation conditions in high trait-forgiveness females.

Key findings

  • Trust could be repaired by both financial compensation and apology, though not to pre-violation levels: overall investment was highest for the fair partner (9.70 ± 2.59 MU), then financial compensation (8.13 ± 2.96 MU), apology (5.02 ± 3.47 MU), and nothing (1.40 ± 2.25 MU), with a significant main effect of repair strategy, F(3,270) = 236.26, p < 0.001.
  • Oxytocin had no overall effect on modulating trust restoration; no other significant effects were found in the overall analysis, all ps > 0.10.
  • A gender-specific effect emerged: female participants in the OXT group showed decreased trust behavior compared with placebo (5.26 ± 3.97 vs. 6.57 ± 4.05; F(1,44) = 5.25, p = 0.027), while males showed no significant effects, all ps > 0.364. Financial compensation was the most sensitive condition modulated by OXT for females, p = 0.040.
  • In high trait-forgiveness females, OXT reduced trust behavior in the financial compensation (p = 0.021), apology (p = 0.032), and nothing conditions (p = 0.025), but not the fair condition (p = 0.170); low trait-forgiveness females showed no significant differences, ps > 0.756. For the Tendency to Forgive scale, only a significant main effect of repair strategies was found, F(3,258) = 210.47, p < 0.001.

Methods

  • Double-blind, between-subjects, placebo-controlled design with 104 healthy students (57 male, mean age 21.2 years, S.D. = 1.76); 10 subjects (nine male; four in OXT group) were excluded for disbelief in partners or identical responses across conditions.
  • Participants played a revised trust game as trustor against four virtual trustees: three returned no MU (betrayal) and one was fair; after betrayal, they received 24 IU intranasal oxytocin or placebo, then completed a second investment round after 45 min with repair strategies of financial compensation, apology, fair, or nothing.
  • Main analyses used repeated-measures ANOVA on benevolence and investment, with repair strategy as a within-subject factor and drug and gender as between-subjects factors, plus separate gender analyses and median splits on forgiveness scales.

Limitations

  • Stated: no attempt was made to test female subjects at specific times of their menstrual cycle.
  • Evident: the text reports 104 participants and 10 exclusions, implying 94 analyzed; trustees were not real, and the second round included only the investment phase, limiting ecological validity and real social consequences.
  • Evident: the paper does not report direct measurement of oxytocin concentrations or central bioavailability, so effects are inferred from intranasal dose and timing.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s146114571400090x

Cites

42 of 42 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 16 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Female participants in the OXT group showed decreased trust behavior compared with the PLC group (5.26 ± 3.97 vs 6.57 ± 4.05).

    “Furthermore, there was also a significant main effect of drug only for female subjects (F 1,44 = 5.25, p = 0.027), indicating that female participants in the OXT group showed decreased trust behavior compared with PLC group (5.26 ± 3.97 and 6.57 ± 4.05).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Participants invested the most MU in the fair partner, followed by partners who provided financial compensation, partners who apologized, and partners who did nothing.

    “Post-hoc paired comparisons showed that participants invested the most MU in the fair partner (9.70 ± 2.59 MU), followed by partners who provided financial compensation (8.13 ± 2.96), partners who apologized (5.02 ± 3.47 MU), and partners who did nothing (1.40 ± 2.25), ps<0.001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Financial compensation was more effective than an apology in restoring damaged trust in the financial context of the trust game.

    “Importantly, the present study extended previous findings by showing within subjects that financial compensation was more effective than an apology in restoring damaged trust, at least in terms of the financial context of the trust game.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    For TTF, there was only a significant main effect of repair strategies.

    “For TTF, there was only a significant main effect of repair strategies, F 3,258 = 210.47,p<0.001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Trust could be repaired to some extent by both financial compensation and apology, although not to the level before violation.

    “The results showed that using this paradigm trust could indeed be repaired to some extent by both repair strategies used (e.g.financial compensation and apology), although not to the level before violation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 8
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 13

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    This effect was particularly strong for financial compensation for all female subjects and extended from financial compensation to apology and nothing conditions for high trait forgiveness females.

    “This effect was particularly strong for financial compensation for all female subjects and extended from financial compensation to apology and nothing conditions for high trait forgiveness females.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The study used a double-blind, between-subjects, placebo-controlled design.

    “The study used a double-blind, between-subject, placebocontrolled design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A number of studies have demonstrated an influence of behavioral traits on the effects of OXT.

    “A number of studies have demonstrated an influence of behavioral traits on the effects of OXT (e.g.Bartz et al., 2011b;Striepens et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2011b

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Striepens et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Ten subjects were excluded due to disbelief of partners or identical responses.

    “10 subjects (nine male; four in OXT group) were excluded due to their expressed disbelief of the existence of their partners (five subjects), or as a result of making identical responses across conditions (five subjects).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    OXT may act both to increase trust behavior and to increase aversion to trust betrayal.

    “Thus OXT may act both to increase trust behavior as well as aversion to trust betrayal.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    There were no significant differences between OXT and PLC groups on general trust, trait forgiveness, self-esteem, empathy, depression, anxiety, and PANAS scores.

    “Independent t-tests on questionnaire scores showed that there were no significant differences between the OXT and PLC group on general trust, trait forgiveness, selfesteem, empathy, depression, anxiety and PANAS scores (see Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OXT has been found to help maintain trust levels even after trust has been broken on several occasions.

    “Some previous studies are suggestive in this respect, with OXT being found to help maintain trust levels even after trust has been broken on several occasions (Baumgartner et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baumgartner et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OXT can enhance trust in economic game contexts.

    “A number of studies have shown that the hypothalamic neuropeptide, oxytocin (OXT) can enhance trust in economic game contexts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kosfeld et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    OXT does not promote blind trust, since it does not have effects when clues indicate a trustee is untrustworthy.

    “However, other research has shown that OXT does not promote blind trust, since it does not have effects when clues are given indicating that a trustee is untrustworthy (Mikolajczak et al., 2010a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mikolajczak et al., 2010a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    After intranasal OXT, females became more punishing and less influenced by repair strategies while males were unaffected.

    “After intranasal administration of OXT, females became more punishing and less influenced by repair strategies while males were unaffected by OXT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    In post-experiment interviews, subjects were unable to identify better than chance whether they had received OXT or PLC.

    “In post-experiment interviews subjects were unable to identify better than chance whether they had received the OXT or PLC treatment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    No attempt was made to test female subjects at specific times of their menstrual cycle.

    “None of the female subjects were pregnant or taking oral contraceptives, but no attempt was made to test them at specific times of their menstrual cycle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    OXT appears to make females generally less forgiving of trust betrayal, in terms of punitive action, with financial compensation trust repair strategy being the least effective.

    “Thus OXT appears to make females generally less forgiving of trust betrayal, in terms of punitive action, with a financial compensation trust repair strategy being the least effective.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Previous studies have shown that certain repair strategies, including financial compensation and apology, are effective in rebuilding damaged trust.

    “Indeed, previous studies have shown that certain repair strategies, including financial compensation and apology, are effective in rebuilding the damaged trust (De Cremer, 2010;Desmet et al., 2011;Haesevoets et al., 2013;Schniter et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites De Cremer, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Desmet et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Haesevoets et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The order and names of the fair and unfair trustees were counterbalanced across participants.

    “The order and names of the fair and unfair trustees were counterbalanced across participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    OXT effects on both trust and forgiveness following betrayal may be highly context dependent and influenced by specific behavioral traits.

    “Thus OXT effects on both trust and forgiveness following betrayal may be highly context dependent and influenced by specific behavioral traits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Trait forgiveness is negatively correlated with needing to belong socially in a cohort of primarily female subjects.

    “A recent study has shown that trait forgiveness is negatively correlated with needing to belong socially in a cohort of primarily female subjects (Barnes et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barnes et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Baumgartner et al. (2008) reported that OXT enhances trust in male subjects after their trust has been breached several times.

    “In contrast to our findings, a study by Baumgartner et al. (2008) has reported that OXT enhances trust in male subjects after their trust has been breached several times.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Baumgartner et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    OXT has been reported to reduce trust and co-operation in borderline personality disorder patients in the context of the assurance game.

    “Interestingly, OXT has been reported to reduce trust and co-operation in borderline personality disorder patients in the context of the assurance game (Bartz et al., 2011a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bartz et al., 2011a

      Not checked in the free run.

19 of 19

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Administering OXT after trust betrayal avoids OXT's potential influence on trust enhancement per se.

    “In order to avoid potential confounding effects of OXT on increasing trust, which might potentially mitigate the effects of betrayal and the impact of subsequent repair strategies, we only administered OXT after the experience of trust betrayal in the game.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The absence of control for menstrual cycle phase in female participants does not confound the observed OXT effects on trust restoration.

    “None of the female subjects were pregnant or taking oral contraceptives, but no attempt was made to test them at specific times of their menstrual cycle.”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Kosfeld's seminal finding on oxytocin and trust has not always been replicated; Baumgartner et al. found no significant effect of oxytocin on the pre-betrayal trust game, and two independent studies also failed to replicate Kosfeld's findings.

    “We noticed that Kosfeld’s [1] seminal finding was not always replicated either. Indeed, Baumgartner et al. [7] found no significant effect of OT on the pre-betrayal trust game. More recently, two independent studies also failed to replicate Kosfeld’s findings [20] [21].”

    From Failed Replication of Oxytocin Effects on Trust: The Envelope Task Case (2015) · cites this paper as [21]

    Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Regarding trust, oxytocin effects are moderated by characteristics of the subject (sex and attachment type) and by characteristics of the target (perceived level of reliability).

    “Regarding trust, it has been shown that OT effects are moderated by the characteristics of the subject (i.e. sex [21] and attachment type [30]) and by those of the target (i.e. its perceived level of reliability [8]).”

    From Failed Replication of Oxytocin Effects on Trust: The Envelope Task Case (2015) · cites this paper as [21]

  • OXT effects have been reported to be modified by trait forgiveness, autism, and depression trait scores.

    “For example, OXT effects have been reported to be modified by trait forgiveness [Yao et al., 2014] and autism [Bartz et al., 2010;Scheele et al., 2014a;Xu et al., 2015] and depression”

    From Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction during trait judgments and reduces medial prefrontal cortex responses: Oxytocin Blurs Self-Other Distinction (2016) · cites this paper as Yao et al., 2014

  • Several recent studies have reported gender differences in OXT effects.

    “several recent studies have reported gender differences in OXT effects [Scheele et al., 2014b;Yao et al., 2014].”

    From Oxytocin blurs the self-other distinction during trait judgments and reduces medial prefrontal cortex responses: Oxytocin Blurs Self-Other Distinction (2016) · cites this paper as Yao et al., 2014

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Oxytocin administration is placed both before and after betrayal

    Major

    The procedure first says participants received oxytocin or placebo before the game, but later says treatment was administered after they had received trustee decisions and rated the trust violations. The timing matters because the study says it was designed to test treatment after betrayal.

  • Trait-forgiveness moderation is called significant despite a nonsignificant interaction

    Minor

    The discussion says the oxytocin effect was significantly stronger with high trait forgiveness, whereas the reported drug-by-trait-forgiveness interaction in females was only marginally significant (p=0.081).

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 5

  1. 1996, Manual for the beck depression inventory – II
  2. 2014, Sci Rep, 3, 3440
  3. 2011, Trends Cogn Sci, 15, 301
  4. 2012, Fron Hum Neurosci, 6, 193
  5. J Appl Soc Psychol

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Yao, S., Zhao, W., Cheng, R., Geng, Y., Luo, L., & Kendrick, K. M.
Affiliations
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China (CN)
Corresponding author
Kendrick, Keith M.
ORCID
Venue
The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2014-06-11
Volume
17
Issue
11
Pages
1785-1792
ISSN
  • 1461-1457 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-5111
DOI
10.1017/s146114571400090x
OpenAlex
W2018055287
Cited by
74
References
42
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 2
FWCI
16.77
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
National Natural Science Foundation of China (91132720)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Forgiveness and Related Behaviors
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
Keywords
oxytocin, trust, betrayal, forgiveness, trust repair, gender differences, punishment, apology, financial compensation, trust game
MeSH terms
Analysis of Variance, Double-Blind Method, Female, Games, Experimental, Humans, Male, Oxytocin, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Sex Characteristics, Social Behavior, Trust, Young Adult, Forgiveness

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