Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts

Houtz, Erika F.; Sutton, Rebecca; Park, June-Soo; Sedlak, Margaret

doi:10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.055

Cited by 374Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances researchFluorine in Organic ChemistrySynthesis and properties of polymers

Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts

Houtz, Erika F., Sutton, Rebecca, Park, June-Soo, Sedlak, Margaret·2016·Water Research

DOI 10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.055

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Abstract

In late 2014, wastewater effluent samples were collected from eight treatment plants that discharge to San Francisco (SF) Bay in order to assess poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) currently released from municipal and industrial sources. In addition to direct measurement of twenty specific PFAS analytes, the total concentration of perfluoroalkyl acid (PFAA) precursors was also indirectly measured by adapting a previously developed oxidation assay. Effluent from six municipal treatment plants contained similar amounts of total PFASs, with highest median concentrations of PFHxA (24 ng/L), followed by PFOA (23 ng/L), PFBA (19 ng/L), and PFOS (15 ng/L). Compared to SF Bay municipal wastewater samples collected in 2009, the short chain perfluorinated carboxylates PFBA and PFHxA rose significantly in concentration. Effluent samples from two treatment plants contained much higher levels of PFASs: over two samplings, wastewater from one municipal plant contained an average of 420 ng/L PFOS and wastewater from an airport industrial treatment plant contained 560 ng/L PFOS, 390 ng/L 6:2 FtS, 570 ng/L PFPeA, and 500 ng/L PFHxA. The elevated levels observed in effluent samples from these two plants are likely related to aqueous film forming foam (AFFF) sources impacting their influent; PFASs attributable to both current use and discontinued AFFF formulations were observed. Indirectly measured PFAA precursor compounds accounted for 33%-63% of the total molar concentration of PFASs across all effluent samples and the PFAA precursors indicated by the oxidation assay were predominately short-chained. PFAS levels in SF Bay effluent samples reflect the manufacturing shifts towards shorter chained PFASs while also demonstrating significant impacts from localized usage of AFFF.

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6:2 FTS is a replacement compound for PFOS and is commonly used in industrial applications such as electroplating and artificial film-forming foams.
“6:2 FTS is a replacement compound for PFOS and commonly used in industrial applications such as elec troplating, artificial film-forming foams (AFFFs) (da Silva et al., 2022; Houtz et al., 2016).”
From Occurrence of emerging and persistent organic pollutants in the rivers Cam, Ouse and Thames, UK (2025) · cites this paper as Houtz et al., 2016
The increase of PFAAs has been attributed to degradation of PFAS precursor compounds, FTS and FOTH, which have been shown to transform to stable PFAAs in WWTP sludge.
“The increase of PFAAs has been attributed to the degradation of the PFAS precursor compounds [32, 33], fluorotelomer sulfonoates (FTS) and fluorotelomer alcohols (FOTH), that have been shown to transform to stable PFAAs in WWTP sludge [34, 35].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [33]
High concentrations of 6:2 FTS in WWTP effluents have been associated with AFFF use in catchments in the USA.
“High concentrations of 6:2 FTS in WWTP effluents have been associated with AFFF use in catchments in the USA [33].”
From An investigation into per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in nineteen Australian wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (2019) · cites this paper as [33]

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Authors: Houtz, E. F., Sutton, R., Park, J.-S., & Sedlak, M.
Affiliations: California Department of Toxic Substances Control (US)
San Francisco Estuary Institute (US)
Corresponding author: Houtz, Erika F.
ORCID: Houtz, Erika F.
Sutton, Rebecca
Park, June-Soo
Venue: Water Research
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2016-05
Volume: 95
Pages: 142-149
ISSN: 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.02.055
OpenAlex: W2295716976
Cited by: 374
References: 38
Citations by year: 2026: 31 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 42 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 3
FWCI: 13.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Water Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Air Force Civil Engineer Center
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmaceutical Science › Fluorine in Organic Chemistry
Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Synthesis and properties of polymers
Keywords: per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, wastewater effluent, municipal wastewater treatment plants, aqueous film-forming foam, perfluorohexanoic acid, perfluorobutanoic acid, PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid, short-chain PFAS, San Francisco Bay
MeSH terms: Carboxylic Acids, Fluorocarbons, Water, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Wastewater

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Poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in wastewater: significance of unknown precursors, manufacturing shifts, and likely AFFF impacts

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