Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales.
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The PANAS has well-documented validity.
“The validity of the PANAS has been well-documented (Watson, 2000; Watson et al., 1988).”
From An examination of mindfulness skills in terms of affect tolerance among individuals with elevated levels of health anxiety. (2018) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The PANAS has good reliability and validity.
“The PANAS consists of two subscales measuring positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA) and is a widely used instrument with good reliability and validity (Mackinnon et al., 1999; Watson et al., 1988).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The PANAS negative affect scale had high internal consistency and test-retest reliability in its validation sample.
“In the validation sample, internal consistency and test-retest reliability were high (α = .90; r = .71).”
From The role of negative affectivity and negative reactivity to emotions in predicting outcomes in the unified protocol for the transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders (2012) · cites this paper as Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988
The Positive and Negative Affect Scale has demonstrated good internal consistency for both its positive affect and negative affect scales and has demonstrated validity.
“This measure has demonstrated good internal consistency for both the positive affect (α = .89) and negative affect (α = .85) scales and has demonstrated validity (Watson et al., 1988).”
From Difficulties in emotion regulation in treatment-seeking alcoholics with and without co-occurring mood and anxiety disorders. (2018) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The short form of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) is a 10-item measure of positive and negative affectivity, scored on a 5-point Likert scale, and has demonstrated good internal reliability (α = .74-.82).
“The short form of the Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS; Thompson, 2007; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) is a 10-item measure of positive (e.g., “Inspired”) and negative (e.g., “Upset”) affectivity. The PANAS is scored on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = Never to 5 = Always) and has demonstrated good internal reliability (α=.74–82; Thompson, 2007).”
From The metacognitive processes of decentering scale: Development and initial validation of trait and state versions (2020) · cites this paper as Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988
In the PANAS validation sample, internal consistency and test-retest reliability were high, with alpha .90 and r .71.
“In the validation sample, internal consistency and test-retest reliability were high (α = .90; r = .71).”
From Intolerance of Uncertainty: A Common Factor in the Treatment of Emotional Disorders (2013) · cites this paper as Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988
In this study, PANAS Cronbach's alphas were 0.90 and 0.91 for positive affect and 0.88 and 0.85 for negative affect at baseline and 3-month follow-up.
“Cronbach’s alphas in our study at baseline and 3-month follow-up, respectively, were 0.90 and 0.91 for PANAS-P and 0.88 and 0.85 for PANAS-N.”
From Prospective examination of the therapeutic role of psychological flexibility and cognitive reappraisal in the ceremonial use of ayahuasca (2022) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
Average values for the psychological and cognitive measures at intake were comparable to those observed in previously published studies of similarly aged subjects and were balanced across Sequence.
“Additionally, average values for the psychological and cognitive measures at intake were comparable to those observed in previously published studies of similarly aged subjects and were balanced across Sequence (Table 2) [61,62,63,64,65,67,69].”
From Walking Green: Developing an Evidence Base for Nature Prescriptions (2019) · cites this paper as [62]
The final PANAS score is derived from the sum of 10 items for each of the positive and negative describing mood, stress, and spirituality, and may reflect to some extent changes in the subject's mood.
“The final score is derived from the sum of 10 items for each of the positive and negative describing mood, stress, and spirituality, and they may reflect to some extent changes in the subject’s mood (48).”
From The health perception of urban green spaces and its emotional impact on young adults: an empirical study from three cities in China (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) is a simple and easy-to-administer version of the most widely and commonly used scale for assessing positive and negative affect, originally developed by Watson et al. in 1988, and has been validated in many cities with excellent psychometric properties.
“The Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS) is a simple and easy-to-administer version of the most widely and commonly used scale for assessing positive and negative affect, originally developed and designed in North America by Watson et al. in 1988, and has since been validated in many cities and shown excellent psychometric properties in several studies (48)”
From The health perception of urban green spaces and its emotional impact on young adults: an empirical study from three cities in China (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
The PANAS scale is designed to measure positive and negative emotions in a person's current state.
“The scale is designed to measure positive and negative emotions in a person’s current state.”
From The health perception of urban green spaces and its emotional impact on young adults: an empirical study from three cities in China (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
Higher values on the PANAS items indicate a higher level of emotion in the subject; a higher positive emotion score indicates a higher level of positive emotion in youths, while a higher negative emotion score reflects a high level of negative emotion in youths.
“Higher values of the items indicate a higher level of emotion in the subject; for example, a higher positive emotion score indicates a higher level of positive emotion in youths, while a higher negative emotion score also reflects a high level of negative emotion in youths (48).”
From The health perception of urban green spaces and its emotional impact on young adults: an empirical study from three cities in China (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
Trait positive affect can be measured using the Positive Affect Scale of the Positive and Negative Affective Schedule (PANAS), a widely used 20-item tool.
“Trait positive affect can be measured using the Positive Affect Scale of the Positive and Negative Affective Schedule (PANAS) 222 , a widely used 20-item tool.”
From The clinical characterization of the adult patient with an anxiety or related disorder aimed at personalization of management (2021) · cites this paper as [222]
The other wellbeing measures used context-free scales, for example Watson et al.'s positive and negative affect scale.
“The other wellbeing measures used scales which were context free, for example Watson et al.'s (1988) positive and negative affect scale”
From What do we know about interventions to improve educator wellbeing? A systematic literature review (2024) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
A sizeable body of evidence suggests that positive affect and negative affect are independent dimensions with distinct underlying neurological and psychological constructs, and an individual can concurrently experience heightened positive affect and negative affect.
“However, a sizeable body of evidence suggests that PA and NA are indeed independent dimensions with distinct underlying neurological and psychological constructs, and an individual can concurrently experience, for example, heightened PA and NA (Cacioppo, Gardner, & Berntson, 1999; Cook et al., 2004; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; Watson & Tellegen, 1985).”
From Modeling naturalistic craving, withdrawal, and affect during early nicotine abstinence: A pilot ecological momentary assessment study. (2015) · cites this paper as Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988
There is similar conceptual overlap between vitality and some of the other high arousal positive emotions included in measures such as the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale.
“Furthermore, there appears to be similar conceptual overlap between vitality and some of the other high arousal positive emotions included in measures such as the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Scale (e.g., excited, enthusiastic, alert, attentive, and active; Watson et al., 1988).”
From The relationship between nature connectedness and happiness: a meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
Positive and negative affective states were measured using the PANAS.
“Positive and negative affective states were measured using the PANAS88.”
From Physiological and Behavioral Synchrony Predict Group Cohesion and Performance (2020) · cites this paper as [88]
Several standardization strategies were used, including monitoring word counts generated by the interviewer versus participant and periodic assessments of changes in negative and positive affect using PANAS immediately before and after the 30-minute conversation across interviewers.
“Several standardization strategies were used and reported earlier including monitoring word counts generated by the interviewer vs. participant, and periodic assessments of changes in negative and positive effects of participants using the International Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Short Form (PANAS) (Crawford & Henry, 2004; Watson et al., 1988), immediately before and after the 30-minute”
From Internet-Based Conversational Engagement Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial (I-CONECT) Among Socially Isolated Adults 75+ Years Old With Normal Cognition or Mild Cognitive Impairment: Topline Results (2024) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
Corroborating measures of emotion were not available, and findings may differ for clinical indicators of mood, particularly depression.
“Although widely-used indicators of positive and negative affect were employed50,59, corroborating measures of emotion were not available from the parent study, and findings may differ for clinical indicators of mood, particularly depression, which shows a sex difference and link to hormonal contraceptive use60,61.”
From Little evidence for sex or ovarian hormone influences on affective variability (2021) · cites this paper as [50]
The PANAS is reliable and externally valid.
“participants completed the reliable and externally valid Positive and Negative Affect Schedule PANAS50”
From Little evidence for sex or ovarian hormone influences on affective variability (2021) · cites this paper as [50]
Psychoeducation programmes and cognitive-behavioural therapy have shown very limited effects in the treatment of personality disorders.
“Psychoeducation programmes and cognitive–behavioural therapy have shown very limited effects in the treatment of personality disorders.2,3”
From Recovery-focused self-help intervention using vodcasts for patients with personality disorder: Feasibility randomised controlled trial (2024) · cites this paper as [2]
The PANAS has good reliability and validity in its English, Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese, and Dutch versions.
“PANAS has good reliability and validity in its versions in English (Watson et al., 1988), Spanish (Ortuño-Sierra et al., 2015), Brazilian Portuguese (De Carvalho et al., 2013), and Dutch (De Engelen et al., 2006).”
From Internet-based self-administered intervention to reduce anxiety and depression symptomatology and improve well-being in 7 countries: protocol of a randomized control trial (2024) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The PANAS alpha internal consistency reliability indices were acceptably high, ranging from 0.86 to 0.90 for positive affect and 0.84 to 0.87 for negative affect, with no significant test-retest differences across an 8-week interval.
“The alpha internal consistency reliability indices were shown to be acceptably high, ranging from 0.86 to 0.90 for positive affect and from 0.84 to 0.87 for negative affect. Test–retest reliability showed no significant differences across an 8-week interval74.”
From Mindfulness-based online intervention increases well-being and decreases stress after Covid-19 lockdown (2022) · cites this paper as [74]
The PANAS positive and negative affect subscales showed adequate internal consistency: PANAS-P (α =0.89) and PANAS-N (α =0.91).
“Both affect subscales showed adequate internal consistency: PANAS-P (α =0.89) and PANAS-N (α =0.91).”
From Spanish Adaptation of Meaning-Centered Psychotherapy for Participants With Cancer: Study Protocol of a Randomized Control Trial (2022) · cites this paper as [42]
The PANAS has adequate convergent and discriminant validity, good internal consistency, and sensitivity to change, with Cronbach's alpha 0.91 for the positive affect subscale and 0.87 for the negative affect subscale.
“The scale has adequate convergent and discriminant validity, good internal consistency, and sensitivity to change. Cronbach's alpha is 0.91 for the PANAS-PA and 0.87 for the PANAS-NA.”
From Efficacy of an internet-based psychological intervention for problem gambling and gambling disorder: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial (2021) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The limited amount of pressure/stress experienced in a Positive Climate might result in improved affect.
“The limited amount of pressure/stress experienced in a Positive Climate might result in improved affect (Watson et al., 1988).”
From A dancer's well-being: The influence of the social psychological climate during adolescence (2014) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The measure of stress was a simple 10-point Likert scale rather than a multi-item validated questionnaire (e.g., PSS, PANAS, SSSQ).
“our measure of stress was a simple 10-point Likert scale rather than a multi-item validated questionnaire (e.g., PSS, PANAS, SSSQ)36–38.”
From Effects of app delivered self hypnosis on stress management (2025) · cites this paper as [37]
The PANAS has shown satisfactory psychometric properties in previous research.
“The PANAS is a 20-item mood adjective checklist designed to measure the Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) factors and has shown satisfactory psychometric properties in previous research (Watson et al., 1988).”
From What Does the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II) Really Measure? (2014) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
Simulated IPIP-NEO Extraversion scores for all but base PaLM models sufficiently correlated with the PANAS scales, supporting their criterion validity.
“Simulated IPIP-NEO Extraversion scores for all but base PaLM models sufficiently correlated with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) scales40, supporting their criterion validity.”
From A psychometric framework for evaluating and shaping personality traits in large language models (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
The criterion measures were drawn from widely used instruments developed and psychometrically validated for human research, including PANAS, BPAQ, PVQ-RR and SSCS.
“These criterion measures were drawn from widely used instruments developed and psychometrically validated for human research, including PANAS scales40, Buss–Perry Aggression Questionnaire (BPAQ)43, Revised Portrait Value Questionnaire (PVQ-RR)44 and Short Scale of Creative Self (SSCS)47.”
From A psychometric framework for evaluating and shaping personality traits in large language models (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
The PANAS was used as a 20-item self-report measure of current positive and negative affect.
“The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) [36] is a 20-item self-report measure of current positive and negative affect.”
From Using Psychological Artificial Intelligence (Tess) to Relieve Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety: Randomized Controlled Trial (Preprint) (2018) · cites this paper as [36]
Positive and negative affect were assessed with the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule.
“The positive (α = .94) and negative affect subscales (α = .93) from the 20-item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) were used to assess the frequency of positive and negative affect “over the past week.””
From Mindfulness-Oriented Recovery Enhancement versus CBT for co-occurring substance dependence, traumatic stress, and psychiatric disorders: Proximal outcomes from a pragmatic randomized trial (2016) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
Participants were selected using the PANAS to span a range of trait positive and negative affect, ensuring the sample included a range of risk for depression.
“participants were 52 (27 female) paid volunteers (mean age = 19.42 years, SD = 1.72) selected based on a range of levels of trait positive and negative affect using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al. 1988).”
From Executive Function Deficits in Daily Life Prospectively Predict Increases in Depressive Symptoms (2014) · cites this paper as Watson et al. 1988
No differences were found in fathers' self-reported emotions before and after administration in either session.
“father's affect was measured before and 40 minutes after administration and no differences were found in fathers' self-reported emotions in either session (42).”
From Oxytocin administration to parent enhances infant physiological and behavioral readiness for social engagement (2012) · cites this paper as [42]
Another popular approach is to place a particular emotion into a space having a limited set of dimensions including valence, activation, and control.
“Another popular approach is to place a particular emotion into a space having a limited set of dimensions [15], [16], [17]. These dimensions include valence (how pleasent or unpleasent a feeling is) activation2 (how likely is the person to take action under the emotional state) and control (the sense of control over the emotion).”
From Survey on RGB, 3D, Thermal, and Multimodal Approaches for Facial Expression Recognition: History, Trends, and Affect-Related Applications (2016) · cites this paper as [17]
Subjects completed validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment to control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states.
“To control for potential confounding effects from personality traits or mood states, subjects completed Chinese versions of validated psychometric questionnaires before treatment, including the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson et al., 1988), Autism Spectrum Quotient (Baron-Cohen et al., 2001), Empathy Quotient (Baron-Cohen and Wheelwright, 2004), and NEO 5-factor inventory (Costa and”
From Oxytocin facilitates approach behavior to positive social stimuli via decreasing anterior insula activity (2018) · cites this paper as Watson et al., 1988
The negative affect subscale of the PANAS has adequate internal consistency, with a Cronbach's alpha ranging from 0.80 to 0.84.
“Internal consistency of the negative affect subscale is adequate, with a Cronbach’s alpha ranging from 0.80 to 0.84.”
From Exposure to a Standardized Catastrophic Scenario in Virtual Reality or a Personalized Scenario in Imagination for Generalized Anxiety Disorder (2019) · cites this paper as [39]
The PANAS positive and negative subscales are internally consistent and have good test-retest reliability.
“The positive and negative subscales are internally consistent (Cronbach’s alpha for negative affect = .084–0.87 and positive affect = .86–.90) with good test-retest reliability of r = .48 and .42 for positive and negative affect, respectively (Watson et al. 1988).”
From Dispositional Mindfulness and Psychological Health: a Systematic Review (2018) · cites this paper as Watson et al. 1988
The PANAS is a 20-item self-report measure of current positive and negative affect.
“The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) [21] is a 20-item self-report measure of current positive and negative affect.”
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- Authors
- Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1988-06
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1063-1070
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4292994367
- Cited by
- 32,433
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1683 · 2025: 1974 · 2024: 1870 · 2023: 2052 · 2022: 2195 · 2021: 2327 · 2020: 2096 · 2019: 1807 · 2018: 1786 · 2017: 1682 · 2016: 1593 · 2015: 1394 · 2014: 1307 · 2013: 1248 · 2012: 1086
- FWCI
- 23.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- positive affect, negative affect, PANAS, scale development, scale validation
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